This chapter investigates the strategic investments by Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the UAE toward non-hydrocarbon-based energy sources. This move marks a critical juncture in the region’s energy policy landscape. Driven by a multifaceted agenda – reducing reliance on hydrocarbons, mitigating carbon emissions, and fostering a more diversified and industrially productive economy – the Gulf states are actively pursuing renewable and nuclear energy solutions. Their path, however, is fraught with obstacles, and this chapter critically examines the institutional barriers with the potential to significantly impede their progress.

This foundational chapter initiates a critical examination of the Gulf region’s multifaceted decarbonization strategies. Having traditionally thrived on hydrocarbon wealth, the region now confronts an interconnected nexus of challenges: climate action, economic diversification, and geopolitical realignments. This introduction contends that decarbonization in the Gulf extends beyond environmental imperatives; rather it represents a calculated maneuver to transcend the enduring constraints of the “dual economy” model, a legacy of colonialism. By adopting sustainable practices, Gulf states seek to reshape the established economic order and secure their positions as modern developmental states.

Finally, the chapter outlines a structural roadmap for the book. This roadmap offers both a chronological and thematic guide, aiding the reader in navigating the complexities of the Gulf’s multifaceted journey toward a decarbonized, diversified, and sustainable future.

Chapter 1 elaborates on how the assemblage of multilateral, bilateral, transnational, and private nongovernmental actors – the clean energy regime complex – interacts with domestic politics in emerging economies and developing countries (EMDEs) to foster energy transitions. The ripple effects of international norms regarding energy transitions are visible in domestic institutional change in Indonesia and the Philippines, but both cases demonstrate variable outcomes in terms of the relative impacts of the clean energy regime complex in removing barriers to geothermal development. The chapter underlines the importance of studying the interaction between the international and domestic politics in EMDEs to understand how best to catalyze energy transitions to meet global climate mitigation goals. The chapter summarizes the case study selection, research design and methods, and theoretical arguments on regime complex effectiveness mechanisms – including utility modifier, social learning, and capacity building, and their impact in overcoming domestic political lock-in. The chapter also provides a brief overview of the book.

This chapter examines the critical role of renewable energy and energy efficiency in circular economy liveable cities. As cities account for the majority of global energy use, transitioning to renewable energy and improving energy efficiency are essential for achieving climate goals and sustainable urban development. The chapter emphasises how circular economy principles can enhance energy systems by promoting the use of renewable energy, reducing resource consumption, and minimising waste. Areas of focus include the integration of renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and waste-to-energy systems, into urban infrastructure. The chapter discusses innovative technologies like smart grids, energy storage solutions, and shared mobility systems that can optimise energy use and reduce environmental impacts. It explores energy-efficient practices in the built environment, such as green building design, retrofitting, and modular construction, which help minimise cities’ energy footprint. The chapter highlights case studies from European cities that have successfully implemented circular energy systems, demonstrating the effectiveness of combining renewable energy with circular economy practices. It concludes by addressing the challenges and opportunities for cities to foster sustainable energy transitions, emphasising the importance of policy support, public–private partnerships, and community engagement in achieving long-term energy efficiency and renewable energy goals.

Climate change impacts are, however, coming to us all — developing and developed countries alike. For instance, Hurricane Maria’s devastation in the Caribbean and extreme heatwaves in Europe exemplify how no region is immune. The chapter discusses how even developed nations face significant challenges, such as wildfires in Australia and California, and flooding in Germany. Comprehensive policy responses are essential to address these widespread impacts. Insights from experts such as Ken Ofori-Atta, Ghana’s Minister for Finance, highlight the extensive effects of climate change, including infrastructure damage, economic costs, health effects, and migration. The chapter calls for a unified global effort to mitigate climate risks, improve infrastructure resilience, and implement robust economic and health strategies to protect all populations from the escalating consequences of climate change.

The chapter explores the changing role of science and technology in global development, highlighting their potential for fostering sustainability. While historically, technology played a minor role, the 2000s saw the internet and digital technologies addressing challenges in health, education, and agriculture. The focus shifted to "green growth," emphasizing renewable energy, smart agriculture, and eco-friendly solutions. Key areas include renewable energy, waste and water management, agriculture, healthcare, mobile, education, and disaster tech. These innovations tackle issues in developing countries such as poverty, health, and environmental conservation. However, infrastructure limitations, skill gaps, high costs, corruption, and legal issues hinder progress. Adoption is challenging, requiring adaptation to local contexts. Sustainability concerns highlight the need for affordable, adaptable, and environmentally friendly technologies. The chapter imparts lessons from development projects, stressing responsible technology use. Key points include integrating technology into comprehensive strategies tailored to local contexts, selecting suitable over sophisticated tech, diverse development models, and considering maintenance and sustainability. A one-size-fits-all approach is discouraged, urging the inclusion of communities, a bottom-up approach, and addressing inequalities. Technological leapfrogging, allowing less advanced regions to adopt newer technologies directly, is discussed. Considering unique contexts, the passage underscores the importance of culturally sensitive, sustainable technology integration in international development.

The Introduction sets the rationale and parameters for the study. The rationale begins with the growing climate crisis and the urgent necessity to decarbonise energy. It outlines the limits of the current assumption that private sector investment can deliver the required decarbonisation. Public legitimacy for renewables, we argue, has moved to the centre of the energy transition, requiring stronger forms of social ownership over the emerging energy systems. New roles for the state in decarbonising society are highlighted, along with a ‘re-commoning’ agenda and issues of sufficiency. Finally, the book’s focus on investigating and comparing region-level ‘success’ stories is outlined.

We outline the socio-ecological appropriation of ‘nature’s free gifts’ of wind and sun for renewable energy, understood as a process of capture, which opens a new ‘frontier’ in capital-nature relations. We elaborate on the term ‘nature’s free gifts’, originally derived from Marx, and its use in Marxist approaches to ecology and social theory as documented by Saito (2022). Second, we highlight the process of securing a spatial, temporal, and social ‘fix’ for large-scale renewables, to enable accumulation, and as an emerging aspect of rivalry between region-level authorities and developers to reap the rewards of the renewable energy transition. Third, we focus on the social relations of renewable accumulation, encompassing state authorities, corporates, workers, landowners, and communities, engaged in a contest to define models for renewable transition and lay claim to ‘nature’s free gifts’. These three strands are used to develop a conceptual model to interpret the social legitimacy of renewable transition and to guide the comparative analysis.

This introductory chapter offers a short overview of carbon neutrality, the great expectations surrounding its primary beneficiaries, and the macro opportunities and implications it will have, political, economic, and social. It then quickly narrows the focus to the emerging economies of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region, their evolving nature, and the role envisioned for carbon neutrality in their transformation from oil-based to cleaner, knowledge-based economies. Next, the chapter contextualises the challenges facing GCC countries to effectively transition towards carbon neutrality. The gap between the aforementioned interest and potential of carbon neutrality in the region and the scholarly work on the topic is then highlighted, motivating the need for the current volume. The objectives, scope, and expected contributions of the volume are finally presented.

This concluding chapter presents a high-level overview of the topics and case studies outlined in the earlier chapters, reiterating the main contributions of the book to the literature. The chapter then proceeds with ten takeaways, insights learned, and recommendations derived from the individual chapters. It concludes with a synthesis of the key findings and lessons learned from the various chapters, reflecting on the policy measures, technological innovation, and behavioural change enablers needed for a successful carbon neutrality transition in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Member States are increasingly focusing on alternatives to electrolysis for the production of ‘green’ hydrogen, such as steam reforming of biofuels and biomass gasification. This chapter analyses the possibility of effectively achieving that under the existing general regulatory framework on energy production, namely the laws on the establishment and operation of factories, as well as environmental protection laws in ASEAN countries that regulate hydrogen production, with special attention on biomass gasification and steam reforming of biofuels. It finds that, despite falling outside of energy regulatory frameworks, hydrogen production from biomass/biofuels is regulated under general legal frameworks on manufacturing activities, occupational health and safety, as well as environmental protection laws. This is demonstrated in more detail by referring to a case study on Thailand. The chapter argues that, in the absence of robust criteria on hydrogen classification, it is possible for an electricity producer that generates electricity from grey hydrogen to gain financial benefits that were formerly thought to be reserved for the promotion of ‘green’ electricity production from blue or green hydrogen, in the case of re-electrification of hydrogen after storage.

This chapter discusses the permitting regime for electrolysers in Aotearoa New Zealand. Because green hydrogen is typically converted from water via electrolysis, hydrogen projects are dependent upon electrolysers – and, therefore, upon obtaining the necessary consents to build and operate these. However, New Zealand’s resource consent rules do not specifically provide for permitting electrolysers. Instead, resource management legislation provides for consent to be obtained for use of those resources that will be needed for (and impacted by) the electrolyser operation, with health and safety rules and industry standards prescribing the specifications for electrolysers and the way these can be used. The chapter asks what permits will be needed and what processes must be followed in order for an electrolytic hydrogen project to receive resource consent. While examining the consenting process, the chapter also considers whether New Zealand’s existing regulations can support its hydrogen aspirations.