After exploring foreign policy interests of French and British Muslims, and more particularly, of the MCB and UOIF, as well as the range of mobilization they trigger, this chapter raises the question of Muslim loyalties in the context of securitization and how the context relating to Global Islam hijacks Muslim expression over foreign policy in European settings.

The 9/11 attacks have reinforced the problematization of Muslims in Europe under the security paradigm (Samad & Sen 2007, 3). Muslims are increasingly perceived as a threat from within and constructed as the “other”, raising questions about their loyalty (Werbner 2000: McLoughlin 2005, 57: Modood 2006: Samad & Sen 2007, 4: Cesari 2013). These trends have been exacerbated by the phenomenon of Foreign Terrorist Fighters, the fears triggered by their return and successive attacks claimed by Daesh taking place in European countries since 2014. The first section of this chapter is devoted to the French case while the second one explores the British case.

Securitization and Foreign Policy Issues in France Terrorism and Securitization of French Muslims: A Historical Background

The association of Muslims with security issues did not start with 9/11 in France. The first attempt at a terrorist attack against Israeli interests in France took place on 19 September 1972 (Hecker 2007, 4). The first “importations” of the Israeli- Palestinian conflict took place with attacks in Paris in the middle of the eighties (Godard & Taussig 2007, 224). The more specific issue of loyalty first emerged with the Gulf War and the Algerian Civil War (Césari 1991, 1: Leveau 2004, 1). It was noted that although there had been no major movement in favor of Saddam Hussein, there were supporters for the anti-Western cause in populations with immigrant origins, especially struggling youth1 (Le Monde, 12 August 1994). The nexus between integration and securitization issues was already highlighted (Le Monde, 10 August 1994). Issues such as the social exclusion felt in the banlieues and the “radicalization of French Muslims” were apprehended in conjunction with the Algerian crisis, and this led to the emergence of public debates over security and immigration (Le Monde, 12 August 1994). The nineties were indeed marked by the eruption of the Algerian conflict on the French territory when Islamist networks established in 1993 sought to recruit followers, especially in France, to help the GIA (the Algerian Armed Islamic Group) (Godard & Taussig 2007, 228: Laurence & Vaïsse 2006, 244).