This chapter examines late antique Armenia, focusing on its architectural developments, Christianisation and regional influences. It traces the evolution of Armenian church architecture between the fourth and seventh centuries, emphasising connections with Rome, Persia and Byzantium. The chapter discusses key archaeological findings, including churches, funerary monuments and inscriptions. Major sites like the basilica of Ereroykʿ, the church of Hṙipʿsimē and the patriarchal complexes of Duin and Zuartʿnocʿ reveal a shift from simple basilicas to complex domed designs. The chapter discusses innovations such as tetraconch and triconch plans and explores the role of elite patronage in church construction, as seen in the princely complex of Aruč. Rather than depicting Armenia as an isolated frontier, it argues that its architecture reflects strong ties with Syrian, Byzantine and Iranian traditions. Sculptural decoration, inscriptions and building techniques illustrate these cultural exchanges. While political shifts influenced construction, ongoing excavations continue to shape our understanding of Armenia’s late antique landscape. The chapter stresses the need for further archaeological research, particularly in under-explored areas, to provide a fuller picture of the region’s historical development.

This chapter explains why Justinian’s equestrian monument survived the devastating pillaging of Constantinople in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade. While numerous other statues perished or were shipped off as spolia from Latin-occupied Constantinople (1204–61), this imperial monument remained virtually unmolested and its stature and prominence further increased. Why was it that this great monument was singled out by the Latins for preservation? The short answer is simple – it became useful to Crusading ideology. Crusaders transformed the rider’s identity and remade him into the emperor Heraclius, who had become the great hero of the Crusading movement. By beholding in the bronze horseman their hallowed forefather, the occupiers were able to invest in the statue’s preservation. The process of reattribution unfolded between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. Three texts highlight key moments in the monument’s reorientation: an eleventh-century Latin narrative dedicated to the mirabilia of Constantinople by the Anonymous of Tarragona, the twelfth-century romance Eracleof Gautier d’Arras, and the narrative of the Fourth Crusade penned by Robert de Clari.