To examine how aligned the UK food supply is with the Eatwell Guide and identify discrepancies that should be addressed to support the availability of healthy diets for the population.

A dietary gap assessment was carried out on the 2022 UK food supply with FAOSTAT Food Balance Sheets (FAO-FBS) data, including domestic production, imports and exports and excluding animal feed, seeds and non-food uses. Foods were grouped into potatoes and cereals, oils and spreads, dairy products, protein, fruit and vegetables and sugar. The percentage contribution of each food group to the food supply was compared with the Eatwell Guide. An overview of the food supply from 2010 to 2022 was also created. To triangulate the data, FAO-FBS data were compared with the 2022 data from the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA).

UK, 2010–2022

N/A

The proportion of fruit and vegetables, potatoes and cereals in the UK food supply was lower than the Eatwell Guide, while dairy products and oil were higher. Only 7 % of the food produced in the UK in 2022 was fruit and vegetables. This was the second smallest proportion, after oils and spreads (6 %), and about half the amount of sugar beet produced (13 %).

Although the relationship between food supply and consumption is complex, taking a more coherent approach by integrating dietary recommendations with the food supply could help increase the availability of the recommended healthy diet. Going forward, DEFRA should include dietary gap assessments in future Food Security Reports.

To investigate associations between dietary intake and patterns of food preparation by age group.

This cross-sectional study analysed dietary intake data from the most recent Portuguese National Food, Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey. Cluster analysis categorised dietary intake based on the source of food preparation. Regression models were used to study the association between dietary daily intake, Healthy Eating Score (HES) and patterns of food preparation.

Portugal, using data representative of the Portuguese population.

A total of 5005 Portuguese residents aged 3–84 years were included in the analysis. Dietary intake and food preparation patterns were examined by age group.

The predominant pattern of food preparation was food prepared by restaurants, canteens and other away-from-home establishments (45·9 %, 95 % CI = 43·8, 48·1). Children and adolescents in this pattern had significantly higher intakes of energy and carbohydrates but lower protein intake compared with those consuming predominantly home-prepared foods. Among adults and the elderly, this pattern was associated with higher intakes of energy, saturated fats, trans fats and free sugars and lower fibre intake. Additionally, children and adolescents whose diets predominantly included food prepared away-from-home showed a decrease in HES (β = –0·7, 95 % CI = –1·3, –0·2), and adults experienced a greater reduction (β = –1·2, 95 % CI = –1·5, –0·9).

In Portugal, consuming food prepared away from home is associated with poorer dietary quality, with higher energy and unhealthy nutrient intake and lower HES, suggesting a need for interventions focused on promoting healthier food preparation practices.

To explore the perceptions, drivers and potential solutions to the consumption of unhealthy, ultra-processed foods (UPF) and foods high in fat, salt and sugar (HFSS) and their contribution to the double burden of malnutrition among adolescents living in urban slums, Kenya.

Qualitative participatory research, through Photovoice, group discussions and community dialogues. Inductive, thematic analysis was undertaken.

Three major slums, Nairobi.

Adolescents 10–19 years (n 102: 51 boys, 51 girls) and adults (n 62).

UPF/HFSS consumption emerged as a predominant theme on foods commonly consumed by adolescents, and the causes of undernutrition and overweight/obesity. Adolescents described UPF/HFSS as junk, oily, sugary or foods with chemicals and associated UPF/HFSS consumption with undernutrition, obesity and non-communicable diseases. They perceived UPF/HFSS as modern, urban, classy and appealing to young people and minimally processed foods as boring and primitive, for older people, and those in rural areas. Individual-level drivers of UPF/HFSS consumption were organoleptic attributes (taste/aroma), body size/shape, illicit drug use, convenience and adolescents’ autonomy. Social environment drivers were peer pressure and social status/aspirations. Physical environment drivers were UPF/HFSS availability and accessibility in the slums. Education on healthy eating and the adverse effects of consuming UPF/HFSS, through existing structures (youth groups, school, community health strategy), was proposed as a potential solution to UPF/HFSS consumption.

UPF/HFSS were perceived as associated with poor nutrition and health, yet were preferred over unprocessed/minimally processed foods. Interventions to promote healthy diets beyond raising awareness are important, while addressing the underlying perceptions and drivers of UPF/HFSS consumption at the individual level and in the social and physical food environments.

This study aims to explore the perspectives of urban and regional living Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults and children regarding Bush Foods, nutrition and health to advocate for future culturally informed programmes and policy.

The qualitative study conducted nine Yarning sessions, which were recorded and transcribed verbatim. An inductive, reflexive thematic analysis using a codebook was employed to analyse the data.

All Yarns were conducted face-to-face in various locations across Southeast Queensland.

Yarning sessions were conducted with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander participants (n 20), including ten adults and ten children. Participants resided in areas classified as inner regional, outer regional and major cities.

Five interconnected themes were generated concerning participants’ perspectives on Bush Foods, nutrition and health. These themes included the effects of colonisation and bureaucratic impositions, socio-environmental factors influencing food provision, the significance of Bush Foods in cultural connection and nutritional health, the importance of reciprocity in communities and the nuanced role of agency influenced by education.

The findings were synthesised into two overarching concepts: the role of family, kin and culture at the individual and community level, aligning with cultural determinants of Indigenous health, and the broader socio-political influences of colonialism, capitalism and power imbalances, reflecting social determinants of Indigenous health. This research highlights a need for culturally informed health policies guided by consideration of cultural, social and commercial determinants that support an Indigenised food system and Bush Food reintegration for urban-living Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults and children.

To present a tool and examine the minimum cost of a healthy and diverse diet that meets the daily requirements of essential nutrients for the people of India, using interactive web-based tools.

Linear-programming algorithms were adapted into two web-based tools: a Food Optimisation for Population (FOP) tool and a Diet Optimisation Tool (DOT). The FOP optimises daily food choices at a population level, considering local food consumption patterns. The DOT focuses on household or individual food selection.

India, with consideration of locally produced and consumed foods.

The two optimisation tools are demonstrated for the state of Bihar: the FOP tool at the population level, exemplified by diet optimisation for children aged 1–3 years, and DOT at the household level, demonstrated through diet optimisation for a household of four members.

Both tools provide cost-effective, optimised food plans, respecting cultural preferences. Based on food prices from June 2022, the FOP tool generated optimised diets for 1–3-year-old Bihari children priced at INR 26·8 (USD 0·32 converted as of January 2024 rate)/child/day. By applying a milk subsidy, this cost could drop to INR 23·7 (USD 0·28). The DOT was able to formulate a vegetarian diet for a family of four at INR 204 (USD 2·45)/day.

These web-based tools offer diet plans optimised to meet macro- and micronutrient requirements at population and/or individual/household levels, at minimum cost. This tool can be used by policymakers to design food-focused strategies that can meet nutritional needs at local price points, while considering food preferences.

Governments are increasingly implementing policies to improve population diets, despite food industry resistance to regulation that may reduce their profits from sales of unhealthy foods. However, retail food environments remain an important target for policy action. This study analysed publicly available responses of industry actors to two public consultations on regulatory options for restricting unhealthy food price and placement promotions in retail outlets in Scotland.

We conducted a qualitative content analysis guided by the Policy Dystopia Model to identify the discursive (argument-based) and instrumental (tactic-based) strategies used by industry actors to counter the proposed food retail policies.

Scotland, UK, 2017–2019.

N/A.

Most food and retail industry responses opposed the policy proposals. Discursive strategies employed by these actors commonly highlighted the potential costs to the economy, their industries and the public in the context of a financial crisis and disputed the potential health benefits of the proposals. They claimed that existing efforts to improve population diets, such as nutritional reformulation, would be undermined. Instrumental strategies included using unsubstantiated and misleading claims, building a coordinated narrative focused on key opposing arguments and seeking further involvement in policy decision-making.

These findings can be used by public health actors to anticipate and prepare for industry opposition when developing policies targeted at reducing the promotion of unhealthy food in retail settings. Government action should ensure robust management of conflicts of interest and establishment of guidance for the use of supporting evidence as part of the public health policy process.

This systematic review aimed to explore the impact of food voucher schemes during pregnancy and early life on fruit and vegetable (F&V) consumption and explore experiences of schemes.

Six electronic databases and grey literature sources were searched. Interventional, observational, qualitative and mixed methods studies published from January 2000 to April 2024 in English were included.

Food voucher interventions targeting F&V intake.

Low-income pregnant women and families with young children (aged under 5 years).

7344 peer reviewed records and 103 grey literature documents were screened. Sixteen peer reviewed studies (across eighteen reports) and eight grey literature documents met the inclusion criteria. All studies took place in the UK or the USA. There was a lack of consistency across primary quantitative outcomes. Overall, F&V voucher schemes did appear to increase fruit and/or vegetable consumption, but confidence in this finding was low. Qualitative data were more consistent. F&V vouchers were used in three main ways; as a financial benefit to subsidise food already being purchased, to increase the quantity or variety of F&V purchased, or as a safety net, to be used to ensure that the family had something to eat.

F&V vouchers may increase F&V intake and are positively received by recipients. This review also highlights some of the difficulties that researchers face in evaluating the impact of public health measures to improve population health. It is clear that more high-quality research is required to better understand the impacts of F&V vouchers on individual outcomes.

This study assessed macronutrient intake and associated factors among school adolescent girls in Meshenti, Northwest Ethiopia, 2020.

A cross-sectional study was conducted from 7 to 23 February 2020, among 401 randomly selected adolescent girls. Macronutrient intake was assessed using a 24-h dietary recall with portion size estimation. Nutrient data were analysed with Elizabeth Stewart Hands and Associates FOOD PROCESSOR software and compared with WHO/FAO recommendations – 2200 kcal for energy and 34–46 g for protein. Factors associated with inadequate macronutrient intake were identified using multivariable logistic regression.

The study was conducted in an institutional setting.

This study was conducted among school adolescent girls.

The median (IQR) energy intake was 2040·23 (1648·24–2744·51), and the mean (sd) protein intake was 63·88 (20·99). About 57·6 % (95 % CI: 52·9, 62·8 %) had inadequate energy intake, and 18·5 % (95 % CI: 14·7, 22·2 %) had inadequate protein intake. Inadequate energy intake was associated with dietary diversity (AOR = 4·31, 95 % CI: 2·20, 8·47), knowledge (AOR = 2·10, 95 % CI: 1·34, 3·28) and meal frequency (AOR = 2·5, 95 % CI: 1·06, 5·95). Factors linked to inadequate protein intake included early adolescence (AOR = 1·89, 95 % CI: 1·08, 3·31), residency (AOR = 0·27, 95 % CI: 0·15, 0·48), dietary diversity (AOR = 3·28, 95 % CI: 1·08, 9·98), knowledge (AOR = 1·82, 95 % CI: 1·04, 3·19) and meal frequency (AOR = 2·94, 95 % CI: 1·35, 6·37).

This study revealed high inadequate energy and protein intake. Contributing factors included dietary diversity, knowledge and meal frequency, with age and residence affecting protein intake. Emphasis is needed on early adolescent girls’ nutrition education.

To investigate the association of dietary patterns (DP) with prediabetes and type 2 diabetes (T2D) among Tibetan adults, first to identify DP associated with abdominal obesity and examine their relationships with prediabetes and T2D. Additionally, the study aims to investigate the mediating effects of body fat distribution and altitude on the associations between these DP and the prevalence of prediabetes and T2D.

An open cohort among Tibetans.

Community-based.

The survey recruited 1003 participants registered for health check-ups from November to December 2018 and 1611 participants from December 2021 to May 2022. During the baseline and follow-up data collection, 1818 individuals participated in at least one of the two surveys, with 515 of them participating in both.

Two DP were identified by reduced rank regression. DP1 had high consumption of beef and mutton, non-caloric drink and offal and low intake in tubers and roots, salty snacks, onion and spring onion, fresh fruits, desserts and nuts and seeds; DP2 had high intake of whole grains, Tibetan cheese, light-coloured vegetables and pork and low intake of sugar-sweetened beverages, whole-fat dairy products and poultry. Individuals in the highest tertile of DP1 showed higher risks of prediabetes (OR 95 % CI) 1·35 (1·05, 1·73) and T2D 1·36 (1·05, 1·76). The highest tertile of DP2 exhibited an elevated risk of T2D 1·63 (1·11, 2·40) in full adjustment.

Abdominal adiposity-related DP are positively associated with T2D. Promoting healthy eating should be considered to prevent T2D among Tibetan adults.

This study aimed to adapt and validate a Food Retail Environment Analysis Protocol in Shiraz, Iran.

The protocol was developed by integrating the Nutrition Environment Measurement Survey in Stores with the food retail module from the International Network for Food and Obesity/Non-communicable Diseases Research, Monitoring, and Action Support. After translating, synthesising and back-translating the protocol, a panel of experts reviewed and refined it to ensure cultural and contextual appropriateness. Its validity was assessed through expert evaluation, and the pre-final version was field-tested to assess reliability across different food retail environments.

Shiraz City, a metropolis in Iran

Nine food retail stores, including kiosks, small- and medium-sized food retailers (comparable to convenience stores) and large food retailers (comparable to grocery stores).

Content and face validity were assessed using the content validity ratio (0·64–1), content validity index (0·78–1) and item impact score (2·84–4·83). Reliability testing by two researchers showed a 93·77 % agreement and an intraclass correlation coefficient of 0·89–1. The protocol includes fourteen food groups, most of which are categorised as either healthy or unhealthy. It evaluates product availability, prominence, quality, pricing and both in-store and out-of-store food promotions.

The validated protocol effectively assesses diverse retail food environments, offering essential data for evaluating policies and guiding interventions to improve healthy food access. It is adaptable for broader regional or international application in public health and food policy contexts.

We aimed to analyse the effects of nutrition-sensitive agriculture (NSA) interventions on nutrition, examine the pathways within a project cycle and explore the pathways 3 years after the end of the funding period.

We employed a sequential mixed-methods design using (1) secondary quantitative data and (2) primary qualitative data. The quantitative data were analysed using the Mann–Whitney test, independent sample t test and binary logistic regression. The qualitative data were analysed thematically.

This research used the case of the Integrated Agriculture and Health Based Interventions project.

The quantitative data comprised 4825 households. The qualitative data included forty-six participants (twenty-eight beneficiaries and eighteen implementers) from two focus group discussions (n 15) and thirty-one semi-structured interviews.

NSA interventions reduced child underweight and improved household and women’s dietary diversity scores, breastfeeding practices, handwashing and access to Fe–folic acid during pregnancy. Pregnant and lactating women’s minimum dietary diversity increased, while children’s minimum dietary diversity reduced. Key pathways to nutrition during project implementation were food production, nutrition-related knowledge and strengthening local institutions. Sustainability of knowledge was mostly evident, followed by food production, while the strengthening of local institutions was less evident.

Key pathways to outcomes during the project implementation were food production, nutrition-related knowledge and strengthening local institutions, as these were the main focus of the project. Income and women’s empowerment pathways could be more effective if intentionally integrated. We reiterate the need to enhance children’s dietary diversity, strengthen income–expenditure and women empowerment pathways, sustain livestock production and strengthen local institutions.

The NewTools project aims to support the transformation of the food system by developing summary scores for the nutritional value and environmental and social sustainability of foods and exploring potential applications. In this conceptual paper, we present the governance, objectives, conceptualisation and expected outcomes of the NewTools project.

A cross-sector research partnership involving actors across the Norwegian food system.

The need to transform food systems both globally, regionally and nationally.

A broad constellation of twenty-eight project partners includes research institutions, governmental agencies, food industry and Non-governmental organization (NGO).

Outputs from the project will include the development and testing of a score for nutritional quality using the European Nutri-Score version 2023 as a starting point, identifying of indicators to measure social and environmental sustainability, proposing weighting of these into one or several summary scores, pilots testing potential applications of use for the scores and protocols for relevant spin-off projects.

The multitude of perspectives represented by this unique variety of partners is seen as valuable to better understand the opportunities and limitations of the proposed tools designed to foster transformations towards a more resilient and sustainable food system.

To evaluate the association between nutritional quality and food prices within the same food category by: (1) identifying price differences among products above or below the nutrient thresholds of the Canadian front-of-package nutrition symbol and (2) investigating price differences among products with differing numbers of nutrients exceeding these thresholds.

This study is part of the Food Quality Observatory’s work, Québec (Canada).

For each product, nutrients exceeding the thresholds for Na, sugars and saturated fat were calculated according to Health Canada’s guidelines. Prices per 100 g and per 100 kcal (418 kJ) were calculated. Statistical analyses were performed using RStudio to evaluate the association between these price metrics and nutritional quality, based on these thresholds.

Five food categories were analysed: sliced breads (n 340), breakfast cereals (n 392), salty snacks (n 569), cookies (n 694) and processed cheeses (n 118).

Results indicate that nutrient type mediates the association between price and nutritional quality. Products exceeding the saturated fat threshold were generally more expensive, whereas those with elevated sugars and Na contents were cheaper. Products with two nutrients exceeding thresholds tended to cost less than those with one or no nutrient above thresholds. Notably, these results varied within each food category. These patterns varied across food categories.

Foods high in nutrients of concern are typically cheaper within their category, except those high in saturated fat. Findings highlight the importance of monitoring food prices, especially as Canada’s nutrition symbol policy becomes mandatory, to prevent worsening health inequalities.

This study aimed to evaluate early childhood nutrition knowledge and practices in Gicumbi District, Rwanda, and assess the potential of parents’ evening forums as platforms for community-based nutrition education.

This study employed a mixed-methods design incorporating structured questionnaires (quantitative) and focus group discussions and interviews (qualitative). Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics and Spearman’s rank correlation to explore associations among participation, knowledge application and access barriers. Thematic analysis was applied to qualitative data to capture contextual insights and educational preferences.

The study was conducted in Gicumbi District, a rural region in northern Rwanda, characterised by high malnutrition rates.

523 participants: 471 household heads completed questionnaires; 52 took part in focus group discussions and interviews.

The study revealed substantial knowledge gaps, with only 46 % of participants aware of the symptoms of malnutrition and just 32 % identifying nutrient-rich complementary foods. Despite 68 % of participants reporting social connection as a key motivator for joining parents’ evening forums, logistical challenges such as time and travel barriers were cited by 41 % as constraints. Lectures were the most preferred teaching method (78 %), followed by cooking demonstrations (56 %). Qualitative findings emphasised the importance of local relevance, peer support and interactive learning for fostering participation and knowledge retention.

Parents’ evening forums represent a viable and contextually appropriate platform for delivering early childhood nutrition education. Their expansion, alongside the integration of digital tools and tailored, experiential teaching approaches, could strengthen community engagement and address persistent malnutrition challenges in Rwanda and comparable settings.

To describe the nutritional intake and status of pregnant women in Bloemfontein and compare across different household food security categories.

Cross-sectional.

Pelonomi Tertiary Hospital.

427 pregnant women were interviewed using a standard questionnaire and a quantitative FFQ to collect socio-demographic, HIV status, household food security, supplement and dietary intake data. Weight and height were measured using standard anthropometric techniques and capillary blood taken by finger-prick for anaemia, Fe and inflammation status assessment.

26·7 % of participants were food secure, while 11·5 %, 32·1 % and 29·5 % experienced mild, moderate and severe food insecurity, respectively. 54·5 %, 41·7 % and 31·1 % were obese, anaemic and Fe deficient. Median energy intake was 8808 (6978–9223) KJ/d, with no significant differences between the food security groups (P = 0·517). Based on the dietary reference intakes, 98·1 % met the estimated average requirement (EAR) for carbohydrates, but the majority had sub-optimal intake of protein (58·3 %), fibre (60·9 %), pantothenic acid (67·0 %), vitamins C (65·6 %), D (68·4 %), E (59·0 %) and K (61·8 %), potassium (99·8 %), dietary Ca (95·8 %) and Fe (80·8 %). Compared with the moderately and severely food-insecure counterparts, food-secure participants had a higher intake of animal protein (P < 0·001), total fat (P = 0·014), monounsaturated fat (P = 0·002), vitamins B12 (P = 0·014), C (P < 0·001) and D (P = 0·003) and dietary Ca (P = 0·001). Dietary folate intake was below the EAR in 69·9 %, but was higher among severely food-insecure participants (463·94 (327·39, 609·71) µg than food secure (378·49 (265·99, 496·15) µg, P = 0·007)).

The findings show widespread inadequate nutrient intake among pregnant women in Bloemfontein, with food-insecure women showing significantly lower intake of specific nutrients.

To assess what is known about how the labelling of commercial infant food impacts parents’ beliefs about a product’s sugar content and their related purchasing and feeding decisions.

Mixed methods scoping review. Peer-reviewed studies were identified from six electronic databases, and grey literature was identified via Google, relevant websites, government reports and by contacting organisations. Searches were completed in May 2024 using a comprehensive search string incorporating keywords and indexed terms related to ‘parents’, ‘beliefs’, ‘sugar’ and ‘baby food labels’.

Northern, Western and Southern Europe, North America, Australia and New Zealand.

Parents and primary caregivers of children (≤ 37 months) or those specifically choosing commercial infant food for their children.

In total, 1123 records were screened, and seventeen were included for review, with all records published since 2015. Records reported on fifteen unique studies, including seven quantitative, seven qualitative and one mixed-methods study. Studies found that simply labelling products as suitable for babies elicited a trust that they were healthy, including not having a high sugar content. Interventions alerting parents to the sugar content of products were associated with less positive opinions or reduced intention to purchase. In eleven studies, parents described being drawn to products displaying labels such as ‘no added sugar’, which some perceived as meaning low sugar. In five studies, parents described sugar labelling as misleading, and/or they explicitly expressed a desire for clearer sugar labelling.

Parents find the current labelling of commercial infant food misleading and desire clearer labelling to support informed purchasing and feeding decisions.

To compare the association of participation in Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) alone v. in combination with Head Start (HS), Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) or both on household dietary environment (HDE) indicators: food security, nutrition security, healthfulness choice, dietary choice, perceived food store availability, utilisation barriers and healthy food access barriers in families with young children.

This study, part of SNAP-Ed Nebraska’s Needs and Assets Assessment ‘Healthy People, Healthy State’, utilised a cross-sectional design. HDE indicator means were compared across the federal assistance program (FAP) participation groups using multivariate ANCOVA, controlling for significant demographics, with Benjamini–Hochberg-adjusted P values compared with α = 0·05.

Nebraska’s low-income households.

Households (n 821) with at least one child aged 2–6 years participating in SNAP-only (n 257), SNAP + HS (n 349), SNAP + WIC (n 132) and SNAP + WIC + HS (n 83).

Compared with other groups, SNAP + HS reported comparatively higher levels of household food security, whereas SNAP + HS + WIC reported lower levels (P < 0·01). SNAP + HS also showed higher levels of nutrition security, dietary choices, perceived availability of healthy foods in stores, fewer healthy food access and utilisation barriers (P < 0·05).

The findings support recent joint policy changes by Administration for Children and Families and Food and Nutrition Service, facilitating SNAP households’ access to HS. HS performance standards for nutrition and family engagement can serve as a model for creating healthy HDE. Future research should employ quasi-experimental or longitudinal designs to establish causal relationships between FAP participation and HDE outcomes.

Ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption varies with socio-economic status (SES) in adults, and evidence suggests that similar patterns exist in adolescents. However, the relationship remains understudied in this critical developmental group. This study aimed to further characterise adolescent UPF consumption and its relationship with SES by exploring dietary patterns within UPF consumption.

Using food-diary data, adolescents’ UPF intake was quantified and categorised. Principal component and clustering analysis were used to identify dietary patterns. Associations of these dietary patterns with socio-demographic characteristics were then analysed.

Pooled data from the rolling, cross-sectional National Diet and Nutrition Survey, waves 1-to-11 (2008–2019).

UK adolescents (11- to18-year-olds) (n 3199).

Three UPF dietary patterns were identified: (i) the ‘Restrictive’ pattern, which included the lowest total consumption of UPF (95 % CI: 33·1, 34·9 % g/d), but elevated consumption of UPF often perceived as healthy, was associated with adolescents of a higher SES; (ii) the ‘Permissive’ pattern included 61·6 % g/d (95 % CI: 60·3, 63·0 % g/d) total UPF, dominated by ‘ready-to-eat,’ low nutrient-density UPF, and was associated with adolescents of a lower SES and (iii) the ‘Traditional’ pattern had moderate consumption of total UPF (95 % CI: 47·6, 50·9 % g/d) with higher intake of UPF used in home-cooking and had less distinct associations with SES.

Results suggest that SES impacts both the amount and type of UPF consumed by adolescents in the UK, underscoring the importance of this factor when designing interventions. Distinct dietary patterns within adolescents’ high UPF diets have potential behavioural, nutritional and health implications.