Hostname: page-component-7dd5485656-jtdwj Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-10-22T15:11:00.973Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Impairments in Social Cognition Following Severe Traumatic Brain Injury

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 January 2013

Skye McDonald
Skye McDonald*
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
*
Correspondence and reprint requests to: Skye McDonald, School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia. E-mail: s.mcdonald@unsw.edu.au
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) leads to physical, neuropsychological, and emotional deficits that interfere with the individual's capacity to return to his or her former lifestyle. This review focuses on social cognition, that is, the capacity to attend to, recognize and interpret interpersonal cues that guide social behavior. Social cognition entails “hot” processes, that is, emotion perception and emotional empathy and “cold” processes, that is, the ability to infer the beliefs, feelings, and intentions of others (theory of mind: ToM) to see their point of view (cognitive empathy) and what they mean when communicating (pragmatic inference). This review critically examines research attesting to deficits in each of these domains and also examines evidence for theorized mechanisms including specific neural networks, the role of simulation, and non-social cognition. Current research is hampered by small, heterogeneous samples and the inherent complexity of TBI pathology. Nevertheless, there is evidence that facets of social cognition are impaired in this population. New assessment tools to measure social cognition following TBI are required that predict everyday social functioning. In addition, research into remediation needs to be guided by the growing empirical base for understanding social cognition that may yet reveal how deficits dissociate following TBI. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–16)

Keywords

Emotion perceptionTheory of mindPragmaticsBrain injuryEmpathy

Information

Type
Critical Review
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 19 , Issue 3 , March 2013 , pp. 231 - 246
Copyright
Copyright © The International Neuropsychological Society 2013

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Adams, J.H., Doyle, D., Ford, I., Gennarelli, T.A., Graham, D.I., McLellan, D.R. (1989). Diffuse axonal injury in head injury: Definition, diagnosis and grading. Histopathology, 15(1), 49–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adelman, P., Zajonc, R. (1989). Facial efference and the experience of emotion. Annual Review of Psychology, 40, 249–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adolphs, R. (2001). The neurobiology of social cognition. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 11, 231–239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adolphs, R. (2002). Neural systems for recognizing emotion. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 12(2), 169–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adolphs, R. (2003). Cognitive neuroscience of human social behaviour. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4(3), 165–178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adolphs, R. (2009). The social brain: Neural basis of social knowledge. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 693–716.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adolphs, R. (2010). Conceptual challenges and directions for social neuroscience. Neuron, 65(6), 752–767.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adolphs, R., Damasio, H., Tranel, D. (2002). Neural systems for recognition of emotional prosody: A 3-D lesion study. Emotion, 2(1), 23–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adolphs, R., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., Cooper, G., Damasio, A.R. (2000). A role for somatosensory cortices in the visual recognition of emotion as revealed by three-dimensional lesion mapping. Journal of Neuroscience, 20(7), 2683–2690.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adolphs, R., Russell, J.A., Tranel, D. (1999). A role for the human amygdala in recognizing emotional arousal from unpleasant stimuli. Psychological Science, 10(2), 167–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adolphs, R., Tranel, D. (2004). Impaired judgments of sadness but not happiness following bilateral amygdala damage. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16(3), 453–462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., Damasio, A.R. (1998). The human amygdala in social judgement. Nature, 393, 470–474.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., Damasio, A.R. (2003). Dissociable neural systems for recognizing emotions. Brain & Cognition, 52(1), 61–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allerdings, M.D., Alfano, D.P. (2001). Alexithymia and impaired affective behavior following traumatic brain injury. Brain and Cognition, 47, 304–306.Google Scholar
Amodio, D.M., Frith, C.D. (2006). Meeting of minds: The medial frontal cortex and social cognition. [10.1038/nrn1884]. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 7(4), 268–277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angrilli, A., Palomba, D., Cantagallo, A., Maietti, A., Stegagno, L. (1999). Emotional impairment after right orbitofrontal lesion in a patient without cognitive deficits. Neuroreport, 10(8), 1741–1746.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Babbage, D.R., Yim, J., Zupan, B., Neumann, D., Tomita, M.R., Willer, B. (2011). Meta-analysis of facial affect recognition difficulties after traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychology, 25(3), 277–285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bagby, R.M., Parker, J.D.A., Taylor, G.J. (1994). The 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale. 1. Item selection and cross validation of the item structure. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 38, 23–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bara, B.G., Cutica, I., Tirassa, M. (2001). Neuropragmatics: Extralinguistic communication after closed head injury. Brain and Language, 77(1), 72–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barker, L.A., Andrade, J., Romanowski, C.A.J. (2004). Impaired implicit cognition with intact executive function after extensive bilateral prefrontal Pathology: A case study. Neurocase, 10(3), 233–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S. (2004). The empathy quotient: An investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(2), 163–175.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Hill, J., Raste, Y., Plumb, I. (2001). The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” test revised version: A study with normal adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 241–251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bassili, J.N. (1978). Facial motion in the perception of faces and of emotional expression. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 4, 373–379.Google ScholarPubMed
Baumeister, R.F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C., Vohs, K.D. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. Review of General Psychology, 5(4), 323–370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bavelas, J.B., Black, A., Chovil, N., Lemery, C.R., Mullett, J. (1988). Form and function in motor mimicry topographic evidence that the primary function is communicative. Human Communication Research, 14(3), 275–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bavelas, J.B., Black, A., Lemery, C.R., Mullett, J. (1986). “I show how you feel”: Motor mimicry as a communicative act. Journal of Personality and Social Ppsychology, 50, 322–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bibby, H., McDonald, S. (2005). Theory of mind after traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychologia, 43(1), 99–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bigler, E.D. (2007). Anterior and middle cranial fossa in traumatic brain injury: Relevant neuroanatomy and neuropathology in the study of neuropsychological outcome. Neuropsychology, 21(5), 515–531.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bigler, E.D., Maxwell, W.L. (2011). Neuroimaging and neuropathology of TBI. NeuroRehabilitation, 28, 1–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, R.J.R., Cipolotti, L. (2000). Impaired social response reversal: A case of “acquired sociopathy”. Brain, 123, 1122–1141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blairy, S., Herrera, P., Hess, U. (1999). Mimicry and the judgment of emotional facial expressions. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 23(1), 5–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bombardier, C.H., Fann, J.R., Temkin, N.R., Esselman, P.C., Barber, J., Dikmen, S.S. (2010). Rates of major depressive disorder and clinical outcomes following traumatic brain injury. Journal of the American Medical Association, 303(19), 1938–1945.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borgaro, S.R., Prigatano, G.P., Kwasnica, C., Alcott, S., Cutter, N. (2004). Disturbances in affective communication following brain injury. Brain Injury, 18(1), 33–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bornhofen, C., McDonald, S. (2007). Treating deficits in emotion perception following traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 18(1), 22–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bornhofen, C., McDonald, S. (2008). Comparing strategies for treating emotion perception deficits in traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 23, 103–115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowers, D., Bauer, R.M., Heilman, K.M. (1993). The nonverbal affect lexicon: Theroretical perpectives from neuropsychological studies of affect perception. Neuropsychology, 7, 433–444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowers, D., Blonder, L.X., Heilman, K.M. (1991). Florida Affect Battery. Gainsville, FL: Centre for Neuropsychological Studies, University of Florida.Google Scholar
Braun, C.M., Baribeau, J.M., Ethier, M., Daigneault, S., Proulx, R. (1989). Processing of pragmatic and facial affective information by patients with closed-head injuries. Brain Injury, 3(1), 5–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooks, D.N., Campsie, L., Symington, C., Beattie, A., McKinlay, W. (1986). The five year outcome of severe blunt head injury: A relative's view. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 49(7), 764–770.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooks, D.N., McKinlay, W. (1983). Personality and behavioural change after severe blunt head injury--a relative's view. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 46(4), 336–344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Callahan, B.L., Ueda, K., Sakata, D., Plamondon, A., Murai, T. (2011). Liberal bias mediates emotion recognition deficits in frontal traumatic brain injury. Brain and Cognition, 77(3), 412–418.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carr, L., Iacoboni, M., Dubeau, M.-C., Maxzziotta, J.C., Lenzi, G.L. (2003). Neural mechanisms of empathy in humans: A relay from neural systems for imitation to limbic areas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America, 100, 5487–5502.Google ScholarPubMed
Castelli, F., Frith, C., Happé, F., Frith, U. (2002). Autism, Asperger syndrome and brain mechanisms for the attribution of mental states to animated shapes. Brain, 125, 1839–1849.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cattran, C.J., Oddy, M., Wood, R.L., Moir, J.F. (2011). Post-injury personality in the prediction of outcome following severe acquired brain injury. Brain Injury, 25(11), 1035–1046.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Channon, S., Crawford, S. (2010). Mentalising and social problem-solving after brain injury. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 20(5), 739–759.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Channon, S., Pellijeff, A., Rule, A. (2005). Social cognition after head injury: Sarcasm and theory of mind. Brain and Language, 93(2), 123–134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicerone, K.D., Tanenbaum, L.N. (1997). Disturbance of social cognition after traumatic orbitofrontal brain injury. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 12, 173–188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collette, F., Van der Linden, M., Delfiore, G., Degueldre, C., Luxen, A., Salmon, E. (2001). The functional anatomy of inhibition processes investigated with the Hayling Task. NeuroImage, 14(2), 258–267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connelly, M., Denney, D.R. (2007). Regulation of emotions during experimental stress in alexithymia. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 62(6), 649–656.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Courville, C.B. (1945). Pathology of the nervous system (2nd ed.). Mountain View, CA: California Pacific Press.Google Scholar
Croker, V., McDonald, S. (2005). Recognition of emotion from facial expression following traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 19, 787–789.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cusi, A.M., MacQueen, G.M., Spreng, R., McKinnon, M.C. (2011). Altered empathic responding in major depressive disorder: Relation to symptom severity, illness burden, and psychosocial outcome. Psychiatry Research, 188(2), 231–236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cusi, A.M., Nazarov, A., Holshausen, K., MacQueen, G.M., McKinnon, M.C. (2012). Systematic review of the neural basis of social cognition in patients with mood disorders. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, 37(3), 154–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
D'Argembeau, A., Ruby, P., Collette, F., Degueldre, C., Balteau, E., Luxen, A., Salmon, E. (2007). Distinct regions of the medial prefrontal cortex are associated with self-referential processing and perspective taking. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19(6), 935–944.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dahlberg, C.A., Cusick, C.P., Hawley, L.A., Newman, J.K., Morey, C.E., Harrison-Felix, C.L., Whiteneck, G.G. (2007). Treatment efficacy of social communication skills training after traumatic brain injury: A randomized treatment and deferred treatment controlled trial. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 88(12), 1561–1573.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, M.H. (1980). A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 10, 85.Google Scholar
Davis, M.H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de la Plata, C.D.M., Garces, J., Kojori, E.S., Grinnan, J., Krishnan, K., Pidikiti, R., Diaz-Arrastia, R. (2011). Deficits in functional connectivity of hippocampal and frontal lobe circuits after traumatic axonal injury. Archives of Neurology, 68(1), 74–84.Google Scholar
de Sousa, A., McDonald, S., Rushby, J. (2012). Changes in emotional empathy, affective responsivity and behaviour following severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 34, 606–623.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Sousa, A., McDonald, S., Rushby, J., Li, S., Dimoska, A., James, C. (2010). Why don't you feel how I feel? Insight into the absence of empathy after severe traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychologia, 48, 3585–3595.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Sousa, A., McDonald, S., Rushby, J., Li, S., Dimoska, A., James, C. (2011). Understanding deficits in empathy after traumatic brain injury: The role of affective responsivity. Cortex, 47(5), 526–535.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Decety, J., Meyer, M. (2008). From emotional resonance to empathic understanding: A cortical developmental neuroscience account. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 1053–1080.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennis, M., Agostino, A., Roncadin, C., Levin, H.S. (2009). Theory of mind depends on domain-general executive functions of working memory and cognitive inhibition in children with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 31(7), 835–847.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dennis, M., Purvis, K., Barnes, M.A., Wilkinson, M., Winner, E. (2001). Understanding of literal truth, ironic criticism, and deceptive praise following childhood head injury. Brain and Language, 78, 1–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dethier, M., Blairy, S., Rosenberg, H., McDonald, S. (in press). Deficits in processing feedback from emotional behaviours following severe TBI. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society.Google Scholar
Dethier, M., Blairy, S., Rosenberg, H., McDonald, S. (2012). Spontaneous and posed emotional facial expressions following severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 34, 936–947.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dimberg, U., Lundquist, L.-O. (1990). Gender differences in facial reaction to facial expressions. Biological Psychology, 30, 151–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dimberg, U., Petterson, M. (2000). Facial reactions to happy and angry facial expressions: Evidence for right hemisphere dominance. Psychophysiology, 37, 693–696.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dimberg, U., Thunberg, M. (1998). Rapid facial reactions to emotional facial expressions. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 39, 39–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dimoska, A., McDonald, S., Pell, M.C., Tate, R.L., James, C.M. (2010). Recognising vocal expressions of emotion following traumatic brain injury: Is the ‘what’ more important than the ‘how’? Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 16, 369–382.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elsass, L., Kinsella, G. (1987). Social interaction following severe closed head injury. Psychological Medicine, 17(1), 67–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eslinger, P.J., Damasio, A.R. (1985). Severe disturbance of higher cognitive function after bilateral frontal ablation: Patient EVR. Neurology, 35, 1731–1741.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eslinger, P.J., Satish, U., Grattan, L.M. (1996). Alterations in cognitive and affectively-based empathy after cerebral damage. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 2, 15.Google Scholar
Frith, U., Frith, C. (2010). The social brain: Allowing humans to boldly go where no other species has been. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 365(1537), 165–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frith, U., Frith, C.D. (2003). Development and neurophysiology of mentalizing. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 358(1431), 459–473.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gentry, L.R., Godersky, J.C., Thompson, B. (1988). MR imaging of head trauma: Review of the distribution and radiopathologic features of traumatic lesions. AJR American Journal of Roentgenology, 150, 663–672.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geraci, A., Surian, L., Ferraro, M., Cantagallo, A. (2010). Theory of mind in patients with ventromedial or dorsolateral prefrontal lesions following traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 24(7–8), 978–987.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldman, A.I., Sripada, C.S. (2005). Simulationist models of face-based emotion recognition. Cognition, 94, 193–213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gozzi, M., Raymont, V., Solomon, J., Koenigs, M., Grafman, J. (2009). Dissociable effects of prefrontal and anterior temporal cortical lesions on stereotypical gender attitudes. Neuropsychologia, 47(10), 2125–2132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graham, R., Devinsky, O., LaBar, K.S. (2007). Quantifying deficits in the perception of fear and anger in morphed facial expressions after bilateral amygdala damage. Neuropsychologia, 45(1), 42–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grattan, L.M., Eslinger, P.J. (1989). Higher cognition and social behavior: Changes in cognitive flexibility and empathy after cerebral lesions. Neuropsychology, 3(3), 175–185.Google Scholar
Green, R.E.A., Turner, G.R., Thompson, W.F. (2004). Deficits in facial emotion perception in adults with recent traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychologia, 42, 133–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hadley, D.M., Teasdale, G.M., Jenkins, A., Condon, B., MacPherson, P., Patterson, J., Rowan, J.O. (1988). Magnetic resonance imaging in acute head injury. [Comparative Study Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't]. Clinical Radiology, 39(2), 131–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Happè, F., Brownell, H., Winner, E. (1999). Acquired ‘theory of mind’ impairments following stroke. Cognition, 70, 211–240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harmer, C.J., Thilo, K.V., Rothwell, J.C., Goodwin, G.M. (2001). Transcranial magnetic stimulation of medial-frontal cortex impairs the processing of angry facial expressions. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 17–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Havet-Thomassin, V., Allain, P., Etcharry-Bouyx, F., Le Gall, D. (2006). What about theory of mind after severe brain injury? Brain Injury, 20(1), 83–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heberlein, A.S., Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., Damasio, H. (2004). Cortical regions for judgments of emotions and personality traits from point-light walkers. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 1143–1158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heider, F., Simmel, M. (1944). An experimental study of apparent behaviour. American Journal of Psychology, 57, 243–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heilman, K.M., Safran, A., Geschwind, N. (1971). Closed head trauma and aphasia. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 34, 265–269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helffenstein, D.A., Wechsler, F.S. (1982). The use of interpersonal process recall (IPR) in the remediation of interpersonal and communication skill deficits in the newly brain-injured. Clinical Neuropsychology, 4(3), 139–142.Google Scholar
Henry, J.D., Phillips, L.H., Crawford, J.R., Ietswaart, M., Summers, F. (2006). Theory of mind following traumatic brain injury: The role of emotion recognition and executive dysfunction. Neuropsychologia, 44(10), 1623–1628.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henry, J.D., Phillips, L.H., Crawford, J.R., Theodorou, G., Summers, F. (2006). Cognitive and psychosocial correlates of alexithymia following traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychologia, 44, 62–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hess, U., Blairy, S. (2001). Facial mimicry and emotional contagion to dynamic emotional facial expressions and their influence on decoding accuracy. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 40(2), 129–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hogan, R. (1969). Development of an empathy scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33, 307–316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hopkins, M.J., Dywan, J., Segalowitz, S.J. (2002). Altered electrodermal response to facial expression after closed head injury. Brain Injury, 16, 245–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hornak, J., Bramham, J., Rolls, E., Morris, R., O'Doherty, J., Bullock, P., Polkey, C. (2003). Changes in emotion after circumscribed surgical lesions of the orbitofrontal and cingulate cortices. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 126(7), 1691–1712.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hornak, J., Rolls, E., Wade, D. (1996). Face and voice expression identification in patients with emotional and behavioural changes following ventral frontal lobe damage. Neuropsychologia, 34(4), 247–261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Humphrey, G.W., Donnelly, N., Riddoch, M.J. (1993). Expression is computed separately from facial identity and is computed separately for moving and static faces: Neuropsychological evidence. Neuropsychologia, 31, 173–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hynes, C.A., Stone, V.E., Kelso, L.A. (2011). Social and emotional competence in traumatic brain injury: New and established assessment tools. Social Neuroscience, 6(5–6), 599–614.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ietswaart, M., Milders, M., Crawford, J.R., Currie, D., Scott, C.L. (2008). Longitudinal aspects of emotion recognition in patients with traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychologia, 46(1), 148–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ishai, A. (2007). Sex, beauty and the orbitofrontal cortex. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 63(2), 181–185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, H.F., Moffat, N.J. (1987). Impaired emotional recognition following severe head injury. Cortex, 23, 293–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kampe, K.K.W., Frith, C.D., Dolan, R.J., Frith, U. (2001). Reward value of attractiveness and gaze. Nature, 413, 589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendall, E., Shum, D., Halson, D., Bunning, S., Teh, M. (1997). The assessment of social problem solving ability following traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 12, 68–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, M.R.T., Wozniak, J.R., Muetzel, R.L., Mueller, B.A., Chiou, H.-H., Pantekoek, K., Lim, K.O. (2009). White matter and neurocognitive changes in adults with chronic traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15(01), 130–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kilts, C.D., Egan, G., Gideon, D.A., Ely, T.A., Hoffman, J.F. (2003). Dissociable neural pathways are involved in the recognition of emotion in static and dynamic facial expressions. NeuroImage, 18, 156–168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kinsella, G., Moran, C., Ford, B., Ponsford, J. (1988). Emotional disorder and its assessment within the severe head-injured population. Psychological Medicine, 18, 57–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kinsella, G., Packer, S., Olver, J. (1991). Maternal reporting of behaviour following very severe blunt head injury. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 54(5), 422–426.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knox, L., Douglas, J. (2009). Long-term ability to interpret facial expression after traumatic brain injury and its relation to social integration. Brain and Cognition, 69, 442–449.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koenigs, M., Young, L., Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., Cushman, F., Hauser, M., Damasio, A. (2007). Damage to the prefontal cortex increases utilitarian moral judgements. Nature, 446(7138), 908–911.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koponen, S., Taiminen, T., Honkalampi, K., Joukamaa, M., Viinamäki, H., Kurki, T., Tenovuo, O. (2005). Alexithymia after traumatic brain injury: Its relation to magnetic resonance imaging findings and psychiatric disorders. Psychosomatic Medicine, 67(5), 807–812.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Langenecker, S.A., Bieliauskas, L.A., Rapport, L.J., Zubieta, J.-K., Wilde, E.A., Berent, S. (2005). Face emotion perception and executive functioning deficits in depression. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 27(3), 320–333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leppänen, J.M., Milders, M., Bell, J.S., Terriere, E., Hietanen, J.K. (2004). Depression biases the recognition of emotionally neutral faces. Psychiatry Research, 128(2), 123–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levenson, R.W., Ekman, P., Friesen, W.V. (1990). Voluntary facial action generates emotion-specific autonomic nervous system activity. Psychophysiology, 27, 363–384.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lezak, M.D. (1978). Living with the characterologically altered brain-injured patient. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 39, 592–598.Google ScholarPubMed
Lieberman, M.D. (2000). Intuition: A social cognitive neuroscience approach. Psychology Bulletin, 126, 109–137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieberman, M.D. (2007). Social cognitive neuroscience: A review of core processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 259–289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin-Rodriguez, J.F., Leon-Carrion, J. (2010). Theory of mind deficits in patients with acquired brain injury: A quantitative review. Neuropsychologia, 48, 1181–1191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, I., McDonald, S. (2005). Exploring the causes of pragmatic language deficits following traumatic brain injury. Aphasiology, 19, 712–730.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonald, S. (1993). Pragmatic language skills after closed head injury: Ability to meet the informational needs of the listener. Brain and Language, 44(1), 28–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDonald, S, Bornhofen, C, Hunt, C (2009). Enhancing emotion recognition after severe traumatic brain injury: The role of focused attention and mimicry. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 7, 1–9.Google Scholar
McDonald, S., Bornhofen, C., Shum, D., Long, E., Saunders, C., Neulinger, K. (2006). Reliability and validity of ‘The Awareness of Social Inference Test’ (TASIT): A clinical test of social perception. Disability and Rehabilitation, 28, 1529–1542.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDonald, S., English, T., Randall, R., Longman, T., Togher, L., Tate, R.L. Assessing social cognition and pragmatic language in adolescents with brain injuries. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society (In Press).Google Scholar
McDonald, S., Flanagan, S. (2004). Social perception deficits after traumatic brain injury: Interaction between emotion recognition, mentalizing ability, and social communication. Neuropsychology, 18(3), 572–579.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDonald, S., Flanagan, S., Martin, I., Saunders, C. (2004). The ecological validity of TASIT: A test of social perception. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 14, 285–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonald, S., Flanagan, S., Rollins, J. (2011). The Awareness of Social Inference Test (Revised). Sydney, Australia: Pearson Assessment.Google Scholar
McDonald, S., Flanagan, S., Rollins, J., Kinch, J. (2003). TASIT: A new clinical tool for assessing social perception after traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 18, 219–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDonald, S., Li, S., De Sousa, A., Rushby, J., Dimoska, A., James, C., Tate, R.L. (2011). Impaired mimicry response to angry faces following severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33(1), 17–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDonald, S., Pearce, S. (1995). The Dice game: A new test of organisational skills in language. Brain Injury, 9, 255–271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonald, S., Pearce, S. (1996). Clinical insights into pragmatic theory: Frontal lobe deficits and sarcasm. Brain and Language, 53(1), 81–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDonald, S., Pearce, S. (1998). Requests that overcome listener reluctance: Impairment associated with executive dysfunction in brain injury. Brain and Language, 61, 88–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDonald, S., Rosenfeld, J., Henry, J.D., Bornhofen, C., Tate, R.L., Togher, L. (2011). Emotion perception and alexithymia in people with severe traumatic brain injury: One disorder or two? A preliminary investigation. Brain Impairment, 12, 165–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonald, S., Rushby, J., Li, S., de Sousa, A., Dimoska, A., James, C., Togher, L. (2011). The influence of attention and arousal on emotion perception in adults with severe traumatic brain injury. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 82(1), 124–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDonald, S., Saad, A., James, C. (2011). Social dysdecorum following severe traumatic brain injury: Loss of implicit social knowledge or loss of control? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33(6), 619–630.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDonald, S., Saunders, J.C. (2005). Differential impairment in recognition of emotion across different media in people with severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 11(4), 392–399.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDonald, S., Tate, R.L., Togher, L., Bornhofen, C., Long, E., Gertler, P., Bowen, R. (2008). Social skills treatment for people with severe, chronic acquired brain injuries: A multicenter trial. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 89(9), 1648–1659.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDonald, S., Van Sommers, P. (1993). Pragmatic language skills after closed head injury: Ability to negotiate requests. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 10(4), 297–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McIntosh, D.N. (1996). Facial feedback hypotheses: Evidence, implications and directions. Motivation and Emotion, 20, 121–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKinlay, W.W., Brooks, D.N., Bond, M.R., Martinage, D.P., Marshall, M.M. (1981). The short-term outcome of severe blunt head injury as reported by relatives of the injured persons. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 44(6), 527–533.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mehrabian, A. (2000). Manual for the Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale (BEES). Available from Albert Mehrabian, 1130 Alta Mesa Road, Montery, CA 93040.Google Scholar
Mendez, M.F., Anderson, E., Shapira, J.S. (2005). An investigation of moral judgement in frontotemporal dementia. Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology, 18, 193–197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merckelbach, H., van Hout, W., van den Hout, M.A., Mersch, P.P. (1989). Psychophysiological and subjective reactions of social phobics and normals to facial stimuli. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 27, 289–294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meythaler, J.M., Peduzzi, J.D., Eleftheriou, E., Novack, T.A. (2001). Current concepts: Diffuse axonal injury-associated traumatic brain injury. [Review] [107 refs]. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 82(10), 1461–1471.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milders, M., Fuchs, S., Crawford, J.R. (2003). Neuropsychological impairments and changes in emotional and social behaviour following severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical & Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(2), 157–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milders, M., Ietswaart, M., Crawford, J.R., Currie, D. (2006). Impairments in theory of mind shortly after traumatic brain injury and at 1-year follow-up. Neuropsychology, 20(4), 400–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milders, M., Ietswaart, M., Crawford, J.R., Currie, D. (2008). Social behavior following traumatic brain injury and its association with emotion recognition, understanding of intentions, and cognitive flexibility. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14(2), 318–326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milne, E., Grafman, J. (2001). Ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions in humans eliminate implicit gender stereotyping. Journal of Neuroscience, 21(12), 1–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitchell, J.P., Banaji, M.R., Macrae, C.N. (2005a). General and specific contributions of the medial prefrontal cortex to knowledge about mental states. Neuroimage, 28(4), 757–762.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitchell, J.P., Banaji, M.R., Macrae, C.N. (2005b). The link between social cognition and self-referential thought in the medial prefrontal cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17(8), 1306–1315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muller, F., Simion, A., Reviriego, E., Galera, C., Mazaux, J.-M., Barat, M., Pierre-Alain, J. (2010). Exploring theory of mind after severe traumatic brain injury. Cortex, 46(9), 1088–1099.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nakagawa, A., Manley, G.T., Gean, A.D., Ohtani, K., Armonda, R., Tsukamoto, A., Tominaga, T. (2011). Mechanisms of primary blast-induced traumatic brain injury: Insights from shock-wave research. Journal of Neurotrauma, 28(6), 1101–1119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neidenthal, P.M., Brauer, M., Halberstadt, J.B., Innes-Ker, Å.H. (2001). When did her smile drop? Facial mimicry and the influences of emotional state on the detection of change in emotional expression. Cognition & Emotion, 15(6), 853–864.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newsome, M.R., Scheibel, R.S., Hanten, G., Chu, Z., Steinberg, J.L., Hunter, J.V., Levin, H.S. (2010). Brain activation while thinking about the self from another person's perspective after traumatic brain injury in adolescents. Neuropsychology, 24(2), 139–147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nigg, J.T. (2001). Is ADHD a disinhibitory disorder? Psychological Bulletin, 127, 571–598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Northoff, G., Heinzel, A., de Greck, M., Bermpohl, F., Dobrowolny, H., Panksepp, J. (2006). Self-referential processing in our brain – A meta-analysis of imaging studies on the self. Neuroimage, 31(1), 440–457.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nummenmaa, L., Hirvonen, J., Parkkola, R., Hietanen, J.K. (2008). Is emotional contagion special? An fMRI study on neural systems for affective and cognitive empathy. Neuroimage, 43(3), 571–580.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Doherty, J., Winston, J., Critchley, H., Perrett, D., Burt, D., Dolan, R. (2003). Beauty in a smile: The role of medial orbitofrontal cortex in facial attractiveness. Neuropsychologia, 41(2), 147–155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pasini, A., Chiale, D., Serpia, S. (1992). Alexithymia as related to sex, age and educational level: Results of the Toronto Alexithymic Scale in 417 normal subjects. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 33, 42–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearce, S., McDonald, S., Coltheart, M. (1998). Ability to process ambiguous advertisements after frontal lobe damage. Brain and Cognition, 38, 150–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phillips, M.L. (2003). Understanding the neurobiology of emotion perception: Implications for psychiatry. British Journal of Psychiatry, 182(3), 190–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phillips, M.L., Drevets, W.C., Rauch, S.L., Lane, R.D. (2003). Neurobiology of emotion perception I: The neural basis of normal emotion perception. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 54, 504–514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phillips, M.L., Young, A.W., Senior, C., Brammer, M., Andrew, C., Calder, A.J., David, A.S. (1997). A specific neural substrate for perceiving facial expressions of disgust. [10.1038/39051]. Nature, 389(6650), 495–498.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prigatano, G.P., Pribam, K.H. (1982). Perception and memory of facial affect following brain injury. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 54(3), 859–869.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rizzolatti, G., Sinigaglia, C. (2010). The functional role of the parieto-frontal mirror circuit: Interpretations and misinterpretations. [10.1038/nrn2805]. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 11(4), 264–274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogers, K., Dziobek, I., Hassenstab, J., Wolf, O., Convit, A. (2007). Who cares? Revisiting empathy in Asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 709–715.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rowe, A.D., Bullock, P.R., Polkey, C.E., Morris, R.G. (2001). ‘Theory of mind’ impairments and their relationship to executive functioning following frontal lobe excisions. Brain, 124(3), 600–616.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ruby, P., Decety, J. (2004). How would you feel versus how do you think she would feel? A neuroimaging study of perspective-taking with social emotions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16(6), 988–999.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, W., Smith, A. (1961). A post-traumatic amnesia in head injury. Archives of Neurology, 5, 16–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanchez-Navarro, J.P., Martınez-Selva, J.M., Roma′n, F. (2005). Emotional response in patients with frontal brain damage: Effects of affective valence and information content. Behavioural Neuroscience, 119, 87–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sarfati, Y., Hardy-Bayle, M.C., Becsche, C., Widlocher, D. (1997). Attributions of intentions in others in people with schizophrenia: A non verbal exploration with comic strip. Schizophrenia Research, 25, 199–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sarno, M.T. (1980). The nature of verbal impairment after closed head injury. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 168, 682–695.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sarno, M.T. (1984). Verbal impairment after closed head injury: Report of a replication study. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 172, 475–479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sarno, M.T. (1988). 1. Head injury: Language and speech defects. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Supplement, 17, 55–64.Google Scholar
Sarno, M.T., Levita, E. (1986). Characteristics of verbal impairment in closed head injured patients. Archives of Physical Medicine Rehabilitation, 67, 400–405.Google ScholarPubMed
Sato, W., Kubota, Y., Okada, T., Murai, T., Yoshikawa, S., Sengoku, A. (2002). Seeing happy emotion in fearful and angry faces: Qualitative analysis of facial expression recognition in a bilateral amygdala-damaged patient. Cortex: A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior, 38(5), 727–742.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Satpute, A.B., Lieberman, M.D. (2006). Integrating automatic and controlled processes into neurocognitive models of social cognition. Brain Research, 1079(1), 86–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saunders, J.C., McDonald, S., Richardson, R. (2006). Loss of emotional experience after traumatic brain injury: Findings with the startle probe procedure. Neuropsychology, 20(2), 224–231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmitz, T.W., Rowley, H.A., Kawahara, T.N., Johnson, S.C. (2006). Neural correlates of self-evaluative accuracy after traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychologia, 44(5), 762–773.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schönberger, M., Ponsford, J., Olver, J., Ponsford, M. (2010). A longitudinal study of family functioning after TBI and relatives’ emotional status. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 20(6), 813–829.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schroeter, M.L., Ettrich, B., Menz, M., Zysset, S. (2010). Traumatic brain injury affects the frontomedian cortex--An event-related fMRI study on evaluative judgments. Neuropsychologia, 48(1), 185–193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shamay-Tsoory, S.G. (2011). The neural bases for empathy. The Neuroscientist, 17(1), 18–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shamay-Tsoory, S.G., Aharon-Peretz, J. (2007). Dissociable prefrontal networks for cognitive and affective theory of mind: A lesion study. Neuropsychologia, 45(13), 3054–3067.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shamay-Tsoory, S.G., Aharon-Peretz, J., Perry, D. (2009). Two systems for empathy: A double dissociation between emotional and cognitive empathy in inferior frontal gyrus versus ventromedial prefrontal lesions. Brain, 132, 617–627.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shamay-Tsoory, S.G., Tomer, R., Aharon-Peretz, J. (2005). The neuroanatomical basis of understanding sarcasm and its relationship to social cognition. Neuropsychology, 19, 288–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shamay-Tsoory, S.G., Tomer, R., Goldsher, D., Berger, B., Aharon-Peretz, J. (2004). Impairment in cognitive and affective empathy in patients with brain lesions: Anatomical and cognitive correlates. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 26(8), 1113–1127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shamay, S.G., Tomer, R., Aharon-Peretz, J. (2002). Deficit in understanding sarcasm in patients with prefrontal lesion is related to impaired empathic ability. Brain and Cognition, 48(2–3), 558–563.Google ScholarPubMed
Sonnby-Borgström, M., Jönsson, P., Svensson, O. (2003). Emotional empathy as related to mimicry reactions at different levels of information processing. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 27(1), 3–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soussignan, R., Ehrle, N., Henry, A., Schaal, B., Bakchine, S. (2005). Dissociation of emotional processes in response to visual and olfactory stimuli following frontotemporal damage. Neurocase, 11, 114–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spell, L.A., Frank, E. (2000). Recognition of nonverbal communication of affect following traumatic brain injury. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 24(4), 285–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spiers, M.V., Pouk, J.A., Santoro, J.M. (1994). Examining perspective-taking in the severely head injured. Brain Injury, 8, 463–473.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spikman, J.M., Timmerman, M.E., Milders, M.V., Veenstra, W.S., van der Naalt, J. (2012). Social cognition impairments in relation to general cognitive deficits, injury severity, and prefrontal lesions in traumatic brain injury patients. Journal of Neurotrauma, 29(1), 101–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stone, V., Baron-Cohen, S., Knight, R.T. (1998). Frontal lobe contributions to theory of mind. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10(5), 640–656.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tate, R.L. (1999). Executive dysfunction and characterological changes after traumatic brain injury: Two sides of the same coin? Cortex, 35(1), 39–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, G.J., Bagby, R.M., Parker, J.D.A. (1997). Disorders of affect regulation: Alexithymia in medical and psychiatric illness. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomsen, I.V. (1984). Late outcome of very severe blunt head trauma: A 10–15 year second follow-up. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 47(3), 260–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tranel, D., Bechara, A., Denburg, N.L. (2002). Asymmetric functional roles of right and left ventromedial prefrontal cortices in social conduct, decision making and emotional processing. Cortex, 38(4), 589–612.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turkstra, L.S. (2008). Conversation-based assessment of social cognition in adults with traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 22(5), 397–409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turkstra, L.S., Dixon, T.M., Baker, K.K. (2004). Theory of Mind and social beliefs in adolescents with traumatic brain injury. NeuroRehabilitation, 19(3), 245–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turkstra, L.S., McDonald, S., DePompei, R. (2001). Social information processing in adolescents: Data from normally developing adolescents and preliminary data from their peers with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 16(5), 469–483.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turkstra, L.S., McDonald, S., Kaufmann, P.M. (1996). Assessment of pragmatic communication skills in adolescents after traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 10(5), 329–345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turkstra, L.S., Williams, W., Tonks, J., Frampton, I. (2008). Measuring social cognition in adolescents: Implications for students with TBI returning to school. NeuroRehabilitation, 23(6), 501–509.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Viano, D.C., Casson, I.R., Pellman, E.J., Zhang, E.J., King, A.I., Yang, K.H. (2005). Concussion in professional football: Brain responses by finite element analysis: Part 9. Neurosurgery, 57, 891–916.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vrana, S.R., Gross, D. (2004). Reactions to facial expressions: Effects of social context and speech anxiety on responses to neutral, anger, and joy expressions. Biological Psychology, 66, 63–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watts, A.J., Douglas, J.M. (2006). Interpreting facial expression and communication competence following severe traumatic brain injury. Aphasiology, 20(8), 707–722.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wells, R., Dywan, J., Dumas, J. (2005). Life satisfaction and distress in family caregivers as related to specific behavioural changes after traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 19(13), 1105–1115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wild, B., Erb, M., Bartels, M. (2001). Are emotions contagious? Evoked emotions while viewing emotionally expressive faces: Quality, quantity, time course and gender differences. Psychiatry Research, 102, 109–124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilde, E.A., Whiteneck, G.G., Bogner, J., Bushnik, T., Cifu, D.X., Dikmen, S., von Steinbuechel, N. (2010). Recommendations for the use of common outcome measures in traumatic brain injury research. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 91(11), 1650–1660e1617.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, C., Wood, R.L. (2010). Alexithymia and emotional empathy following traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 32(3), 259–267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, K.R., Galas, J., Light, D., Pepper, C., Ryan, C., Kleinmann, A.E., Donovick, P. (2001). Head injury and alexithymia: Implications for family practice care. Brain Injury, 15(4), 349–356.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williamson, D.J.G., Scott, J.G., Adams, R.L. (1996). Traumatic brain injury. In R. L. Adams, O. A. Parsons, J. L. Culbertson, & S. J. Nixon (Eds.), Neuropsychology for clinical practice: Etiology, assessment, and treatment of common neurological disorders (pp. 9–64). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winston, J.S., Strange, B.A., O'Doherty, J., Dolan, R.J. (2002). Automatic and intentional brain responses during evaluation of trustworthiness of faces. [see comment]. Nature Neuroscience, 5(3), 277–283.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, R.L., Williams, C. (2007). Neuropsychological correlates of organic alexithymia. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13, 471–479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, R.L., Williams, C. (2008). Inability to empathize following traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14, 289–296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, A., Perret, D., Calder, A., Sprengelmeyer, R., Ekman, P. (2002). Facial expression of emotion-stimuli and tests (FEEST). Bury St Edmunds, England: Thames Valley Test Company.Google Scholar