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Efforts to Put an end to E.T.A.’S Terrorism : Evolution, Present Situation and Perspective of Future

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 May 2025

José Luis de la Cuesta*
Affiliation:
Basque Institute of Criminology (University of the Basque Country); AIDP-IAPL; International Society of Criminology

Abstract

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Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © 2009 International Society for Criminology

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References

(2) In this way the writings of Larramendi around 1756-1758, Manuel De La Larramendi, Sobre Los Fueros De Guipuzcoa (Sociedad Guipuzcoana de ediciones y publicaciones, San Sebastián, 1983); José Augustin Chaho, Voyage en Navarre Pendant L’Insurrection des Basques (1830-1835) (1836).

(3) Antonio Elorza, La Historia de ETA (Ediciones Temas de Hoy, S.A. 2000) (4th ed., 2000); Antonio Fernández Hernández, Ley de partidos políticos y derecho penal Una nueva perspectiva en la lucha contra el terrorismo 33-78 (Librería Tirant Lo Blanch 2008); J.M. Garmendia, La Historia de ETA (vol. 2, San Sebastián, 1996); G. Jauregui Bereci-artu, Ideología y estrategia política de ETA : análisis de su evolución entre 1959-1968 (Madrid : Siglo XXI 1981); F. Letamendía, Historia del nacionalismo vasco y de ETA (vol. 3, San Sebastián, 1994).

(4) Some sources consider however that the first ETA’s violent attack was a bomb in San Sebastian on June, 27 1960, provoking the death of Begoña Urroz Ibarrola, a child 22 months old, available at http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banda_Terrorista_E.T.A.

(5) Gisèle Halimi, Le procès de Burgos (Gallimard, Paris, 1971).

(6) Eva Forest, Operación Ogro. Cómo y por qué ejecutamos a Carrero Blanco (San Sebastián, 1978).

(7) «Euskadi’s Left».

(8) José Luis de la Cuesta, «Anti-Terrorist Penal Legislation and the Rule of Law : Spanish Experience», in Revue électronique de l’Association Internationale de Droit Pénal / electronic-Review of the International Association of Penal Law / Revista electrónica de la Asociación Internacional de Derecho Penal, 2007, A-03 : 11.

(9) M. Cherif Bassiouni, «The Regression of the Rule of Law Under the Guise of Combating Terrorism», 76 Revue Internationale de Droit Pénal 17, 24 (2005).

(10) A.Fernández Hernández, supra note 2.

(11) See infra.

(12) Fundación : Victimas del Terrorismo, http://www.fundacionvt.org/.

(15) In the period 1978-1980 (approval of the Spanish Constitution and the Autonomy Statute for the Basque Country, first Basque elections for the Autonomous institutions, and Constitution of the first Basque Government), ETA assassinated 247 persons : 82 per year. Covite, http://www.covite.org/.

(16) The longest sequestration was the sequestration of José Antonio Ortega Lara, in January 17, 1996; it lasted 532 days. It is followed by the sequestration of José María Aldaya, in May 8, 1995; it lasted 342 days.

(17) La Coordinador Gesto Por la Paz de Euskal Herria Ante la Violencia de Persecución, July, 2000, available at http://www.gesto.org/pdf/violenciapersecucion.pdf.

(18) This provision was developed by the Royal Decree of March 5, 1982.

(19) By Act 52/1984, a particular protection of the international transport against terrorist attacks in Spain was also established.

(20) Gerardo Landrove Díaz, La Moderna Victimología, 143 (Valencia : Tirant lo blanch, 1998).

(21) Except if they were the responsible of these attacks.

(22) Nevertheless, the recognized purpose of Act 35/1995 was « to gradually homogenize the legal funding system for victims of all crimes».

(23) G. Landrove Díaz, supra note 19, at 155. (These norms declared also all the victims of terrorist acts after January 1, 1976, as beneficiaries of the results of the National Lottery’s lot of October 18, 1997).

(24) Reparation includes a provisional lodging, if required.

(25) Funds for exemption from academic fees and for financing medical treatments, prostheses and surgical operations not covered by another public or private system are also included (art. 7 Act).

(26) G. Landrove Díaz, supra note 19, at 146.

(27) As to the Batallón Vasco Español, the Grupos Armados Españoles and the Triple A, the Basque Government considers that they killed 32 persons, available at http://www-org2.rtve.es/noticias/20080624/gobierno-vasco-asegura-que-extrema-derecha-matado-personas/101671.shtml.

(28) The GAL was a group directed created by the Spanish Minister of Interior. Between 1983 and 1987 they attacked ETA and its entourage. They committed more than 30 attacks, killed 24 persons and injured around 27 (some of them had no relationship with ETA), available at http://www-org2.rtve.es/noticias/20080624/gobierno-vasco-asegura-que-extrema-dere-cha-matado-personas/101671.shtml. Although even the Minister and the highest positions of the Minister were seriously punished, Supreme Court jurisprudence was contradictory concerning the terrorist nature of GAL : they were not considered terrorists in 1992 (Decision of March 12, 1992), and later in 1998 (Decision of July, 29, 1998) even if their terrorist nature was affirmed the sentence punished the accused because of illegal association. Critically, C. Lamarca Pérez, «Sobre el concepto de terrorismo (A propósito del caso Amedo)», in Anuario de Derecho Penal y Ciencias Penales, 535-559 (1993); G. Portilla Contreras, «Terrorismo de estado : los Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberación (G.A.L.)», in Libro homenaje al Profesor Marino Barbero Santos 501-530 (vol. 2, Cuenca, 2001).

(29) And with the participation of the victims and their organizations and associations. The establishment of a Basque Council of Participation of the Victims of Terrorism (Article 6) is devoted to this aim.

(30) A. Beristain, «Las víctimas y el perdón… Hacia la superación integradora del sufrimiento», in Du monde pénal. Mélanges en l’honneur de Pierre-Henri Bolle 367-379 (Bale, 2006).

(31) José Luis de la Cuesta, «Reflexiones sobre el protagonismo social de las víctimas del terrorismo», in Bake Hitzak 46-48, 49 (2003).

(32) Jon Mirena Landa, «La Otra Victimización y la Ertzaintza : Una Réplica», in Diario Vasco 25 (July 8, 2008).

(34) A. Fernández Hernández, supra note 2, at 102-130.

(35) Euskal Iraultzarako Alderdia (Party for the Basque Revolution).

(36) A fraction (the Octavos) separated and entered in ETA military.

(37) In January 1985, only three cases remained still unsolved. El País, 15/01/1985.

(38) José Luis de la Cuesta Arzamendi, «Atenuación, remisión de la pena e indulto de miembros de grupos terroristas», in Cuadernos de Política Criminal 584-591 (30, 1986). See also Maria Luisa Cuerda Arnau, Atenuación y Remisión de la Pena en los Delitos de Terrorismo (Ministerio de Justicia e Interior, Madrid, 1995).

(39) J.L. de la Cuesta Arzamendi, supra note 37, at 584-591.

(41) C. Fonseca, Negociar con ETA. Del proceso de Argel de Felipe González a la paz dialogada de Rodríguez Zapatero (Temas de Hoy 2006).

(42) See supra.

(44) During the electoral campaign of 1995, as they tried to publish through a video the ETA’s proposal, the Herri Batasuna leaders were prosecuted and sentenced to seven years imprisonment by the Supreme Court (1997); this sentence was however annulated by the Constitutional Court in 1999.

(45) Miguel Angel Blanco was sequestrated on July 10, 1997 and ETA gave 48 hours to the Government in order to put an end to the policy of dispersal of ETA’s prisoners and nearing them to penitentiary establishments closer to the Basque Country. On July 12, 1997 Miguel Angel Blanco appeared seriously injured (two shots in the nape of the neck) and immediately died.

(46) Petxo Idoyaga, «El conflicto vasco sin horizonte político», in 97 Viento Sur 84 (May 2008).

(47) «Basque Solidarity».

(48) «Popular Unity».

(49) «Basque Citizens».

(50) See supra.

(51) «Unity».

(53) Elkarri, http://www.elkarri.org/pdf/batasuna_es.pdf. Batasuna had already made a Proposal in favour of a democratic solution in January 26, 2002.

(54) A. Elorza, supra note 2, at 272-273.

(55) Euskobarómetro, Estudio Periódico de la Opinion Pública Vasca 40-58 (May, 2008). (50) Noticias de Gipuzkoa, http://www.noticiasdegipuzkoa.com/ediciones/2008/01/02/politica/euskadi/d02eusl9.870108.php.

(57) On the characteristics of ETA activists, see F. Reinares, Patriotas de la Muerte : Quiénes han militado en ETA y Por Qué (Taurus, Madrid, 2000).

(58) Antonio Fernández Hernández, Jarrai-Haika-Segi : de Asociación Ilícita a Organización Terrorista, Revista Penal, January 17, 2006, at 95.

(59) José Luis de la Cuesta & Ignacio Muñagorri Laguía (Dirs.), Clausura de Medios de Comunicación Vascos (Egin, Egin, Irratia y Euskaldunon Egunkaria) (Report for the Basque Government, 2008 printing).

(60) On the 18/98 process, Freedom of Expression and Opinion, and Right of Association in the Basque Country (Report of the Basque Association of Lawyers -Eskubideak - and the Basque Observatory of Human Rights, Basque Country, October 2002), available at http://www.joxemi.org/sos-berria/dokumentazioa/behatokia_i.pdf.

(61) A. Fernández Hernández, supra note 2, at 359-375.

(62) Id at 255-265.

(64) Ramón Zallo, La Propuesta de autonomía política de la Izquierda abertzale, Deia, February 23, 2007, available at http://www.deia.com/es/impresa/2007/02/23/bizkaia/iritzia/340468.php.

(66) These are the two questions approved by the Basque Parliament : «Do you agree to support a negotiated end to violence, if ETA declares unequivocally its will to put an end to violence once and for ever?» and «Do you agree to the initiation by all Basque political parties, without exclusions, of a negotiation process to reach a Democratic Agreement on the right of the Basque People to decide their own future, and to the celebration of a Referendum on the aforementioned Agreement before the end of 2010?», available at http://www.lehendakari.euskadi.net/r57-4075/en/contenidos/noticia/decla_20080528_leydeconsulta/en_consulta/presentacion.html.

(67) The last « Sociometer» of the Basque Government indicates that in April 2008 a 30% of the Basques manifested his opposition to the independence of the Basque Country, and a 22 % was in favor. A 32 % declared that they would be in favor or against depending on to the circumstances. Eusko Jaurlaritza, Gobierno Vasco, Euskal Soziometroa, Sociómetro Vasco 37, 41 (July, 2008), available at http://gvas.euskadi.net/pub/gv/estudios_sociologicos/08sv3711.pdf.

(68) In 2008 three new assassinations took place : Juan Manuel Piñuel Villalón, Luis Conde de la Cruz and Ignacio Uría Mendizábal.

(69) P. Ido yaga, supra note 45.

(70) Euskobarómetro, supra note 54, at 59-61.