I. THE BACKGROUND

Stage 1

IN THE FIRST HALF of $afar 37/late July-early August 657, there took place some important developments in the war between ‘Alī and Mu'āwiya which brought to an end the prolonged confrontation at Ṣiffin. After a series of duels, skirmishes and small-scale engagements, followed by a lull in hostilities in MuQ.arram 37, there was a resumption of fighting in Ṣafar which culminated in the most serious engagement of the confrontation. There were signs of rapid escalation and it became clear that, if the fighting were to continue, the total forces of the two sides would probably soon be engaged. As the battle progressed-and this is reported by both Iraqi and Syro-Medinan authorities-the Syrians became fearful that they were losing, and it was at this point that Mu'āwiya and ‘Amr ibn al-'Ā∼ exploited the divisions which existed within the ranks of

the coalition which ‘Alī had attempted to form .They cannot have been unaware that ‘Alī's following included many groups which preferred not to fight but might nevertheless be drawn into the battle if it continued. We may note particularly that al-Ash'ath ibn Qays al-Kindī, who did not take part in the battle, is reported by al-Sha'bi publicly to have expressed fears of attack from the Persians and Byzantines if these two Arab armies cut each other to pieces; on being informed of this, Mu'āwiya is reported to have regarded it as representative of the opinion of dhawī al-a∼lām wa'l-nuhā and to have ordered the attaching of ma∼ā∼if I to spearheads. 94 According to al-Zuhrī, however, it was ‘Amr ibn ‘A∼ who suggested this, when he advised Mu'āwiya mur rajuzan fal-yanshur al-mu∼∼af thumma yaqūl: yāahl al-'Irā q baynanā wa-baynakum kitāb allāh, nad'ūkum ilā mā bayna fāti∼atihi wa-khātimatihi; he went on to point out that this would cause disagreement among ‘Alī's followers and increase the obedience of Mu'āwiya's own followers. Mu'awiya thereupon caused a mu∼∼af, or a number of ma∼ii∼if, to be raised up on the points of spears, and his followers called out hādhā kitāb allāh baynanā wa-baynakum, man li-thughūr al-Shām ba ‘da ahl al-Shām wa-man li-thughūr al-'Irāq ba ‘da ahl al-'Irāq?