Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
  • Cited by 77
    • Show more authors
    • You may already have access via personal or institutional login
    • Select format
    • Publisher:
      Cambridge University Press
      Publication date:
      May 2010
      October 2003
      ISBN:
      9780511720154
      9780521804325
      9780521042048
      Dimensions:
      (228 x 152 mm)
      Weight & Pages:
      0.66kg, 336 Pages
      Dimensions:
      (228 x 152 mm)
      Weight & Pages:
      0.506kg, 336 Pages
    You may already have access via personal or institutional login
  • Selected: Digital
    Add to cart View cart Buy from Cambridge.org

    Book description

    This book is a sustained examination of issues in the philosophy of ecology that have been a source of controversy since the emergence of ecology as an explicit scientific discipline. The controversies revolve around the idea of a balance of nature, the possibility of general ecological knowledge and the role of model-building in ecology. The Science of the Struggle for Existence is also a detailed treatment of these issues that incorporates both a comprehensive investigation of the relevant ecological literature and the development of an explicit theoretical framework in the philosophy of science. It addresses issues in the philosophy of ecology that are of particular importance for the deployment of ecology in the solution of environmental problems. It will have a cross-disciplinary appeal and will interest students and professionals in science, the philosophy of science, and environmental studies as well as policy-makers.

    Reviews

    ‘… A book of high scholarly merit … To date there have been a number of works in the philosophy of ecology written or co-authored by ecologists, few of which have shown anything like the level of philosophical sophistication of this work. Cooper knows the full range of available philosophical options and deploys them intelligently … He uses philosophy to clarify ecological debate and display the real choices we face, not to win arguments by the use of false dichotomies. At the same time, Cooper knows more than enough about ecology to convince his scientific audience that he is in touch with the real issues that confront them.’

    Paul E. Griffiths - University of Pittsburgh

    'Greg Cooper's [book] is a must read for those interested in the history and philosophy of ecology and in topics like laws of nature, scientific explanation, and mathematical modelling. If you want to explore some of the metaphysical and methodological challenges that face ecology, there is no better place to go … On every page there are interesting ideas presented but which are excitingly controversial … With important exceptions notwithstanding, ecology has been largely ignored by philosophers of biology (though not by historians). Cooper's book will I believe help remedy this situation. It is a great resource for struggling with the fascinating controversies in ecology and is thankfully controversial itself.'

    Source: Biology and Philosophy

    Refine List

    Actions for selected content:

    Select all | Deselect all
    • View selected items
    • Export citations
    • Download PDF (zip)
    • Save to Kindle
    • Save to Dropbox
    • Save to Google Drive

    Save Search

    You can save your searches here and later view and run them again in "My saved searches".

    Please provide a title, maximum of 40 characters.
    ×

    Contents

    References
    Abrams, P. A. (1980). “Are Competition Coefficients Constant? Inductive versus Deductive Approaches.” The American Naturalist 116: 730–735
    Abrams, P. A. (1983). “The Theory of Limiting Similarity.” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 14: 359–377
    Adams, C. C. (1915). “The Variations and Ecological Distribution of the Snails of the Genus ‘Io.’Memoirs of The National Academy of Sciences 12: 1–9
    Allee, W. C., E. E. Emerson, et al. (1949). Principles of Animal Ecology. Philadelphia, Saunders
    Allen, T. F. H. and T. W. Hoekstra (1992). Toward a Unified Ecology. New York, Columbia University Press
    Andrewartha, H. G. (1957). “The Use of Conceptual Models in Population Ecology.” Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on Quantitative Biology 22: 219–232
    Andrewartha, H. G. and L. C. Birch (1954). The Distribution and Abundance of Animals. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
    Andrewartha, H. G. and L. C. Birch (1984). The Ecological Web. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
    Anonymous (1944). “British Ecological Society Symposium on ‘The Ecology of Closely Allied Species.’Journal of Animal Ecology 13: 176–178
    Antonovics, J., , K. Clay, and , J. Schmitt (1987). “The measurement of small-scale environmental heterogeneity using clonal transplants of ‘Anthoxanthum Odoratum’ and ‘Danthonia Spicata.’Oecologia 71: 601–607
    Antonovics, J., N. C. Ellestrand, and R. N. Brandon (1988). “Genetic Variation and Environmental Variation: Expectations and Experiments.” In L. D. Gottlieb and S. K. Jain, eds.: 275–303
    Antonovics, J. and S. Via (1988). “Genetic Influences on the Distribution and Abundance of Plants.” In A. J. Davy, M. J. Hutchings, and A. R. Watkinson, eds.: 185–203
    Beatty, J. (1995). “The Evolutionary Contingency Thesis.” In G. Wolters and J. G. Lennox, eds.: 45–81
    Bechtel, W. (1984). “Reconceptualizations and Interfield Connections: The Discovery of the Link between Vitamins and Coenzymes.” Philosophy of Science 51: 265–292
    Bechtel, W., ed. (1986a). Integrating Scientific Disciplines. Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers
    Bechtel, W. (1986b). “The Nature of Scientific Integration.” In W. Bechtel, ed.: 3–52
    Beer, G. (1985). “Darwin's Reading and the Fictions of Development.” In D. Kohn, ed.: 543–588
    Berryman, A. A. (1987). “Equilibrium or Nonequilibrium: Is That the Question?Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 68: 500–502
    Berryman, A. A. (1991). “Stabilization or Regulation: What It All Means!Oecologia 86: 140–143
    Birch, L. C. (1960). “The Genetic Factor in Population Ecology.” American Naturalist 94: 5–24
    Blackburn, S. (1993). Essays in Quasi-Realism. New York, Oxford University Press
    Bogen, J. and Woodward, J. (1988). “Saving the Phenomena.” The Philosophical Review 97: 303–352
    Botkin, D. B. (1990). Discordant Harmonies: A New Ecology for the Twenty-First Century. New York, Oxford University Press
    Botkin, D. B. (1993). Forest Dynamics: An Ecological Model. Oxford, Oxford University Press
    Boyd, R. N. (1973). “Realism, Underdetermination, and a Causal Theory of Evidence.” Nous 7: 1–12
    Brandon, R. (1990). Adaptation and Environment. Princeton, Princeton University Press
    Brandon, R. (1994). “Theory and Experiment in Evolutionary Biology.” Synthese 99: 59–73
    Brandon, R. (1996). Concepts and Methods in Evolutionary Biology. Cambridge Studies in Philosophy and Biology. New York, Cambridge University Press
    Brandon, R. and , M. D. Rausher (1996). “Testing Adaptationism: A Comment on Orzack and Sober.” American Naturalist 148: 189–201
    Brookhaven Symposia in Biology (1969). Diversity and Stability in Ecological Systems. No. 22. Upton NY, Brookhaven National Laboratory
    Brooks, D. R. and D. A. McLennan (1991). Phylogeny, Ecology, and Behavior: A Research Program in Comparative Biology. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
    Brown, J. H. (1995). Macroecology. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
    Cappuccino, N. (1995). “Novel Approaches to the Study of Population Dynamics.” In N. Cappuccino and P. W. Price, eds.: 3–18
    Cappuccino, N. and P. W. Price, eds. (1995). Population Dynamics: New Approaches and Synthesis. San Diego, Academic Press
    Cartwright, N. (1983). How the Laws of Physics Lie. Oxford, Clarendon Press
    Cartwright, N. (1989). Nature's Capacities and Their Measurement. Oxford, Oxford University Press
    Cartwright, N. (1999). The Dappled World: A Study of the Boundaries of Science. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
    Caswell, H. (1978). “Predator-mediated Coexistence: A Nonequilibrium Model.” The American Naturalist 112: 127–154
    Caswell, H. (1988). “Theory and Models in Ecology: A Different Perspective.” Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 69: 102–109
    Chapman, R. N. (1931). Animal Ecology. New York, McGraw-Hill
    Cherrett, J. M., ed. (1989). Ecological Concepts. Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications
    Chesson, P. L. (1981). “Models for Spatially Distributed Populations: The Effect of Within-patch Variability.” Theoretical Population Biology 19: 288–325
    Chesson, P. L. (1982). “The Stabilizing Effect of a Random Environment.” Journal of Mathematical Biology 15: 1–36
    Chesson, P. L. and T. J. Case (1986). “Overview: Nonequilibrium Community Theories: Chance, Variability, History, and Coexistence.” In J. Diamond and T. Case, eds.: 229–239
    Chitty, D. (1996). Do Lemmings Commit Suicide? Beautiful Hypotheses and Ugly Facts. New York, Oxford University Press
    Clements, F. E. (1905). Research Methods in Ecology. Lincoln, NE, University Publishing Company
    Clements, F. E. (1916). Plant Succession: An Analysis of the Development of Vegetation. Publication No. 242. Washington, DC, Carnegie Institution of Washington
    Coffa, J. A. (1973). “Foundations of Inductive Explanation.” Ph.D. dissertation, Ann Arbor, MI, University Microfilms
    Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology (1957). Population Studies: Animal Ecology and Demography. No. 22. Cold Spring Harbor, NY, Biological Laboratory
    Cole, L. C. (1954). “The Population Consequences of Life History Phenomena.” Quarterly Review of Biology 19: 103–135
    Cole, L. C. (1957). “Sketches of General and Comparative Demography.” In Cold Spring Harbor Symposia: 1–16
    Coleman, W. (1986). “Evolution into Ecology? The Strategy of Warming's Ecological Plant Geography.” Journal of the History of Biology 19: 181–196
    Collingwood, R. G. (1940). An Essay on Metaphysics. Oxford, Clarendon Press
    Collins, J. P. (1986). “‘Evolutionary Ecology’ and the Use of Natural Selection in Ecological Theory.” Journal of the History of Biology 19: 257–288
    Colwell, R. K. (1984). “What's New? Community Ecology Discovers Biology.” In P. W. Price, C. N. Slobodchikoff, and W. S. Gaud, eds.: 387–396
    Connell, J. H. (1961a). “Effects of Competition, Predation by Thais lapillus and other Factors of Natural Populations of the Barnacle Balanus balanoides.” Ecological Monographs 31: 61–104
    Connell, J. H. (1961b). “The Influence of Interspecific Competition and Other Factors on the Distribution of the Barnacle Chthamalus stellatus.” Ecology 42: 710–723
    Connell, J. H. (1990). “Apparent vs. ‘real’ competition in plants.” In J. B. Grace and D. Tilman: 9–26
    Connell, J. H. and , W. P. Sousa (1983). “On the Evidence Needed to Judge Ecological Stability or Persistence.” American Naturalist 121: 789–824
    Connor, E. F. and , D. Simberloff (1986). “Competition, Scientific Method, and Null Models in Ecology.” American Scientist 74: 155–162
    Cook, R. E. (1977). “Raymond Lindeman and the Trophic-Dynamic Concept in Ecology.” Science 198: 22–26
    Cooper, G. (1989). Ecology and Evolution, a Philosophical Study. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota
    Cooper, G. (1990). “The Explanatory Tools of Theoretical Population Biology.” In A. Fine, M. Forbes, and L. Wessels, eds., Philosophy of Science Association 19901: 165–178
    Cooper, G. (1993). “The Competition Controversy in Community Ecology.” Biology and Philosophy 8: 359–384
    Cooper, G. (1996). “Towards a Genuine Dialogue between Ecology and Philosophy of Science.” Ecology 76: 974–977
    Cooper, G. (1997). “Theoretical Modeling and Biological Laws.” In L. Darden, ed., Philosophy of Science Association 1996, Supplement to Philosophy of Science, 63: 28–35
    Cooper, G. (1998). “Generalizations in Ecology: A Philosophical Taxonomy.” Biology and Philosophy 13: 555–586
    Cooper, G. (2001). “Must There Be a Balance of Nature?Biology and Philosophy 16: 481–506
    Costanza, R., G. B. Norton, and B. D. Haskell, eds. (1992). Ecosystem Health: New Goals for Environmental Management. Washington, DC, Island Press
    Cowles, H. C. (1898). “The Phytogeography of Nebraska.” Botanical Gazette 25: 370–371
    Cox, D. L. (1979). Charles Elton and the Emergence of Modern Ecology. Ph.D. dissertation, Washington University
    Curtis, J. (1959). The Vegetation of Wisconsin. Madison, University of Wisconsin Press
    Darden, L., ed. (1997). Philosophy of Science Association 1996, Supplement to Philosophy of Science, 63
    Darden, L. and , N. Maull (1977). “Interfield Theories.” Philosophy of Science 44: 43–64
    Darwin, C. (1859). The Origin of Species. New York, Collier Books (1962)
    Davenport, C. B. (1897). Experimental Morphology. London, MacMillan
    Davy, A. J., M. J. Hutchings, and A. R. Watkinson, eds. (1988). Plant Population Ecology: The 28th Symposium of the British Ecological Society, Sussex 1987. Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications
    Dayton, P. K. (1975). “Experimental Evaluation of Ecological Dominance in a Rocky Intertidal Algal Community.” Ecological Monographs 45: 137–159
    DeAngelis, D. L. and , J. C. Waterhouse (1987). “Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Concepts in Ecological Models.” Ecological Monographs 57: 1–21
    Boer, P. J. (1968). “Spreading the Risk and Stabilization of Animal Numbers.” Acta Biotheoretica 18: 165–194
    Boer, P. J. (1986). “The Present Status of the Competitive Exclusion Principle.” Trends in Evolutionary Ecology 1: 25–28
    den Boer, P. J. and J. Reddingius (1996). Regulation and Stabilization Paradigms in Population Ecology. London, Chapman and Hall
    Dennis, B. and , B. Taper (1994). “Density Dependence in Time Series Observation of Natural Populations: Estimation and Testing.” Ecological Monographs 64: 205–224
    Diamond, J. and T. Case, eds. (1986). Community Ecology. New York, Harper & Row
    Diamond, J. M. and R. M. May (1981). “Island Biogeography and the Design of Natural Reserves.” In R. M. May, ed.: 228–252
    Dobzhansky, T. (1957). “Discussion” from H. G. Andrewartha, “The Use of Conceptual Models in Population Ecology.” Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on Quantitative Biology 22: 235
    Duhem, P. (1962). The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory. New York, Atheneum
    Duke Environmental Law & Policy Forum, vol. 7, 1996
    Dupré, J., ed. (1987). The Latest on the Best. Cambridge, MIT Press
    Earman, J., I. Janis, G. J. Massey, and N. Rescher, eds. (1993). Philosophical Problems of the Internal and External Worlds: Essays on the Philosophy of Adolf Grünbaum. Pittsburgh, PA, University of Pittsburgh Press
    Egerton, F. N. (1973). “Changing Concepts of the Balance of Nature.” The Quarterly Review of Biology 48: 322–350
    Elton, C. (1927). Animal Ecology. London, Sidgewick and Jackson
    Elton, C. (1933). The Ecology of Animals. London, Methuen
    Fagerström, T. (1987). “On Theory, Data and Mathematics in Ecology.” Oikos 50(2): 258–261
    Fine, A. (1993). “Fictionalism.” In P. A. French, T. E. Uehling, and H. K. Wettstein, eds.:1–18
    Forbes, S. A. (1887). “The Lake as a Microcosm.” Bulletin Science Association of Peoria, Illinois 1887: 77–87
    French, P. A., T. E. Uehling, and H. K. Wettstein, eds. (1993). Midwest Studies in Philosophy Volume 18: Philosophy of Science. Notre Dame, IN, University of Notre Dame Press
    Gauch, H. (1982). Multivariate Analyses in Community Ecology. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
    Gause, G. F. (1934). The Struggle for Existence. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins
    Gause, G. F. (1939). “Analytical Population Studies in Relation to General Ecology.” American Midland Naturalist 21: 235–253
    Giere, R. N. (1979). Understanding Scientific Reasoning. New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston
    Giere, R. N. (1988a). Explaining Science: A Cognitive Approach. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
    Giere, R. N. (1988b). “Laws, Theories, and Generalizations.” In A. Grünbaum and W. C. Salmon, eds.: 37–46
    Giere, R. N., ed. (1992). Cognitive Models of Science. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press
    Gilbert, F. S. (1980). “The Equilibrium Theory of Island Geography: Fact or Fiction.” Journal of Biogeography 7: 209–235
    Gilpin, M. and I. Hanski, eds. (1991). “Metapopulation Dynamics: Empirical and Theoretical Investigations. London, Academic Press
    Gleason, H. A. (1926). “The Individualistic Concept of the Plant Association.” Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 53: 1–20
    Glennan, S. S. (1996). “Mechanism and the Nature of Causation.” Erkenntnis 44: 49–71
    Glennan, S. S. (1997). “Capacities, Universality, and Singularity.” Philosophy of Science 64: 605–626
    Glennan, S. S. (2002). “Contextual Unanimity and the Units of Selection Problem.” Philosophy of Science 69: 118–137
    Golley, F. B. (1993). A History of the Ecosystem Concept in Ecology: More than the Sum of the Parts. New Haven, CT, Yale University Press
    Gottlieb, L. T. and S. K. Jain, eds. (1988). Plant Evolutionary Biology. London, Chapman and Hall
    Gould, S. J. (1989). Wonderful Life. New York, The Free Press
    Grace, J. B. and D. Tilman (1990). Perspectives on Plant Competition, San Diego, Academic Press
    Greenwood, P. J., P. H. Harvey, and M. Slatkin, eds. (1985). Evolution: Essays in Honor of John Maynard Smith. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
    Grinnell, J. (1917). “The Niche-Relationships of the California Thrasher.” Auk 34: 427–433
    Grünbaum, A. (1954). “Science and Ideology.” The Scientific Monthly 79: 13–19
    Grünbaum, A. and W. C. Salmon, eds. (1988). The Limitations of Deductivism. Berkeley, University of California Press
    Hacking, I. (1983). Representing and Intervening. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
    Haeckel, E. (1866). Generelle Morphologie der Organismen: Allgemeine Grundzüge der organischen Formen-Wissenschaft, mechanisch begründet durch die von Charles Darwin reformirte Descendenz-Theorie. Berlin, Reimer
    Hagen, J. B. (1992). An Entangled Bank: The Origins of Ecosystem Ecology. New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers University Press
    Haila, Y. (1986). “On the Semiotic Dimension of Ecological Theory: The Case of Island Biogeography.” Biology and Philosophy 1: 377–387
    Haila, Y. (1988). “The Multiple Faces of Ecological Theory and Data.” Oikos 53: 408–411
    Haila, Y. and O. Järvinen (1980). “The Role of Theoretical Concepts in Understanding the Ecological Theatre: A Case Study on Island Biogeography.” In E. Saarinen, ed.: 261–278
    Haila, Y. and R. Levins (1992). Humanity and Nature. London, Pluto Press
    Hairston, N. G. (1989). Ecological Experiments. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
    Hanski, I. (1990). “Density Dependence, Regulation, and Variability in Animal Populations.” In M. P. Hassell and R. M. May, eds.: 141–150
    Hanski, I. (1991a). “The Functional Response of Predators: Worries about Scale.” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 6: 141–143
    Hanski, I. (1991b). “Single-species Metapopulation Dynamics: Concepts, Models and Observations.” In M. Gilpin and I. Hanski, eds.: 17–38
    Hanski, I. (1991c). “Metapopulation Dynamics: Brief History and Conceptual Domain.” Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 42: 3–16
    Hanski, I. (1996). “Metapopulation Ecology.” In O. E. Rhodes, R. K. Chesser, and M. H. Smith, eds.: 13–43
    Hanski, I., , I. Woiwod, and , J. Perry (1993). “Density Dependence, Population Persistence, and Largely Futile Arguments.” Oecologia 95: 595–598
    Hanski, I. and M. E. Gilpin (1997). Metapopulations Biology: Ecology, Genetics, and Evolution. San Diego, Academic Press
    Harper, J. L. (1967). “A Darwinian Approach to Plant Ecology.” Journal of Ecology 55: 247–270
    Harrison, S. (1991). “Local Extinction in a Metapopulation Context: An Empirical Evaluation.” Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 42: 73–88
    Hausman, D. M. (1992). The Inexact and Separate Science of Economics. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
    Hempel, C. G. (1965). Aspects of Scientific Explanation. New York, The Free Press
    Hempel, C. G. (1988). “Provisos: A Problem Concerning the Inferential Function of Scientific Theories.” In A. Grünbaum, and W. C. Salmon, eds.: 19–36
    Hensen, V. (1887). “Über die Bestimmung des Planktons oder des im Meere Treibendend Materials an Pflanzen und Tieren.” Berichte der Kommission zur wissenschaftlichen Untersuchungen der deutschen Meeresforsuchung 5: 1–109
    Hesse, M. (1980). Revolutions and Reconstructions in the Philosophy of Science. Bloomington, Indiana University Press
    Holyoak, M. and , J. H. Lawton (1993). “Comments Arising from a Paper by Wolda and Dennis: Using and Interpreting the Results of Tests for Density Dependence.” Oecologia 95: 592–594
    Howard, L. O. and W. F. Fiske (1911). The Importation into the United States of the Parasites of the Gipsy Moth and the Brown-Tail Moth. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology, Bulletin No. 91. Reprinted (1977) New York, Arno Press
    Hughes, R. I. G. (1993). “Theoretical Explanation.” In P. A. French, T. E. Uehling, and H. K. Wettstein, eds.:132–153
    Hunter, M. D. and , P. W. Price (1998). “Cycles in Insect Populations: Delayed Density Dependence or Exogenous Driving Variables?Ecological Entomology 23: 216–222
    Hurlbert, S. H. (1984). “Pseudoreplication and the Design of Ecological Field Experiments.” Ecological Monographs 54: 187–211
    Huston, M. A. (1991). “Use of Individual-based Forest Succession Models to Link Physiological Whole-tree Models to Landscape-scale Ecosystem Models.” Tree Physiology 9: 293–306
    Huston, M., , D. DeAngelis, and , W. Post (1988). “New Computer Models Unify Ecological Theory.” Bioscience 38(10): 682–691
    Hutchinson, G. E. (1948). “Circular Causal Systems in Ecology.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 50: 221–246
    Hutchinson, G. E. (1957). “Concluding Remarks.” In Cold Spring Harbor: 415–427
    Hutchinson, G. E. (1959). “Homage to Santa Rosalia or Why Are There So Many Kinds of Animals?The American Naturalist 870: 145–159
    Hutchinson, G. E. (1978). An Introduction to Population Ecology. New Haven, CT, Yale University Press
    Huxley, J. S. (1942). Evolution: The Modern Synthesis. London, George Allen and Unwin
    James, F. C., , R. F. Johnston, , N. O. Wamer, , G. J. Niemi, and , W. J. Boecklen (1984). “The Grinnellian Niche of the Wood Thrush.” American Naturalist 124: 17–47
    Kareiva, P. (1989). “Renewing the Dialogue Between Theory and Experiments in Population Ecology.” In J. S. D. Roughgarden, R. M. May, and S. A. Levin, eds.: 68–88
    Keller, D. R. and F. B. Golley, eds. (2000). The Philosophy of Ecology. Athens, University of Georgia Press
    Kelly, K. and , C. Glymour (1989). “Convergence to the Truth and Nothing but the Truth.” Philosophy of Science 56: 185–220
    Kelly, K. and , C. Glymour (1990). “Theory Discovery from Quantified Data.” Journal of Philosophical Logic 19 (1): 1–33
    Kimler, W. (1986). “Advantage, Adaptiveness, and Evolutionary Ecology.” Journal of the History of Biology 19: 215–233
    Kingsland, S. (1985). Modeling Nature: Episodes in the History of Population Ecology. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
    Kingsland, S. (1995). Modeling Nature: Episodes in the History of Population Ecology. 2nd ed. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
    Kitcher, P. (1981). “Explanatory Unification.” Philosophy of Science 48: 507–531
    Kitcher, P. (1982). Abusing Science: The Case against Creationism. Cambridge, MIT Press
    Kitcher, P. (1985a). “Darwin's Achievement.” In N. Rescher, ed., Reason and Rationality in Science. Washington, DC, University Press of America
    Kitcher, P. (1985b). “Two Approaches to Explanation.” Journal of Philosophy 82: 632–639
    Kitcher, P. (1989). “Explanatory Unification and the Causal Structure of the World.” In P. Kitcher and W. C. Salmon: 410–505
    Kitcher, P. (1993). The Advancement of Science: Science without Legend, Objectivity without Illusions. New York, Oxford University Press
    Kitcher, P. and W. C. Salmon (1989). Scientific Explanation, vol. 13 of Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press
    Kline, A. D. and , C. A. Matheson (1986). “How the Laws of Physics Don't Even Fib.” PSA 1: 33–41
    Korfiatis, K. J. and , G. P. Stamou (1994). “Emergence of New Fields in Ecology: The Case of Life History Studies.” History and Philosophy of Life Sciences 16: 97–116
    Krebs, J. R. (1978). Ecology: The Experimental Analysis of Distribution and Abundance. 2nd ed. New York, Harper & Row
    Krebs, J. R. and N. B. Davies, eds. (1984). Behavioral Ecology. 2nd ed. Oxford, Blackwell
    Kritcher, P. (1998). “Nothing Endures but Change: Ecology's Newly Emerging Paradigm.” Northeastern Naturalist 5: 165–174
    Kuhn, T. (1962). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
    Kuhn, T. (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. 2nd ed., enl. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
    Lack, D. L. (1947). Darwin's Finches: An Essay on the General Biological Theory of Evolution. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
    Lack, D. L. (1954). The Natural Regulation of Animal Numbers. Oxford, Clarendon Press
    Lack, D. L. (1973). “My Life as an Amateur Ornithologist.” Ibis 115: 421–434
    Lakatos, I. (1970). “Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes.” In I. Lakatos and A. Musgrave, eds., (1970): 91–197
    Lakatos, I. and A. Musgrave, eds. (1970). Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge. London, Cambridge University Press
    Larcher, W. (1995). Physiological Plant Ecology. 3rd ed. Heidelberg, Springer Verlag
    Lawler, S. P. (1998). “Ecology in a Bottle: Using Microcosms to Test Theory.” In W. J. Resetarits and J. Bernardo: 236–253
    Laymon, R. (1989). “Cartwright and the Lying Laws of Physics.” The Journal of Philosophy 86: 353–372
    Levins, R. (1966). “The Strategy of Model Building in Population Biology.” American Scientist 54: 421–431
    Levins, R. (1968). Evolution in Changing Environments. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press
    Levins, R. (1969). “Some Demographic and Genetic Consequences of Environmental Heterogeneity for Biological Control.” Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America 15: 237–240
    Levins, R. (1993). “A Response to Orzack and Sober: Formal Analysis and the Fluidity of Science.” The Quarterly Review of Biology 68: 547–555
    Lewin, R. (1983). “Santa Rosalia Was a Goat.” Science 221: 636–639
    Lewontin, R. C. (1969). “The Meaning of Stability.” In Brookhaven Symposia in Biology: 13–24
    Lewontin, R. C. (1974). The Genetic Basis of Evolutionary Change. New York, Columbia University Press
    Lewontin, R. C. (1985). “Population Genetics.” In P. J. Greenwood, P. H. Harvey, and M. Slatkin, eds.: 3–18
    Lindeman, R. L. (1942). “The Trophic-Dynamic Aspect of Ecology.” Ecology 23: 399–418
    Lloyd, E. A. and C. G. Anderson (1993). “Empiricism, Objectivity, and Explanation.” In P. A. French, T. E. Uehling, and H. K. Wettstein, eds.: 121–131
    Loehle, C. (1983). “Evaluation of Theories and Calculation Tools in Ecology.” Ecological Modelling 19: 239–247
    Loehle, C. (1987a). “Errors of Construction, Evaluation, and Inference: A Classification of Sources of Error in Ecological Models.” Ecological Modelling 36: 297–314
    Loehle, C. (1987b). “Hypothesis Testing in Ecology: Psychological Aspects and the Importance of Theory Maturation.” The Quarterly Review of Biology 62: 397–409
    Loehle, C. (1988). “Philosophical Tools: Potential Contributions to Ecology.” Oikos 51: 97–104
    Lomnicki, A. (1988). Population Ecology of Individuals. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press
    Lotka, A. J. (1925). Elements of Physical Biology. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins
    Lubchenco, J. (1978). “Plant Species Diversity in a Marine Intertidal Community: Importance of Herbivore Food Preferences and Algal Competitive Abilities.” The American Naturalist 112: 23–39
    Lubchenco, J. and L. A. Real (1991). “Manipulative Experiments as Tests of Ecological Theory.” In L. A. Real and J. H. Brown, eds.: 715–733
    MacArthur, R. H. (1960). “On the Relative Abundance of Species.” American Naturalist 94: 25–36
    MacArthur, R. H. (1972). Geographical Ecology. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press
    MacArthur, R. H. and , R. Levins (1967). “The Limiting Similarity, Convergence, and Divergence of Coexisting Species.” The American Naturalist 101: 377–385
    MacArthur, R. H. and , E. R. Pianka (1966). “An Optimal Use of a Patchy Environment.” The American Naturalist 101: 377–385
    MacArthur, R. H. and E. O. Wilson (1967). The Theory of Island Biogeography. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press
    Margalef, R. (1969). “Diversity and Stability: A Practical Proposal and a Model of Interdependence.” In Brookhaven Symposia in Biology: 25–37
    May, R. M. (1973). Stability and Complexity in Model Ecosystems. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press
    May, R. M. (1974). “Scaling in Ecology.” Science 184: 1131
    May, R. M., ed. (1981a). Theoretical Ecology: Principles and Applications. 2nd ed. Sunderland, MA, Sinauer Associates, Inc
    May, R. M. (1981b). “Models for Two Interacting Populations.” In R. M. May, ed.: 78–104
    May, R. M. (1984). “An Overview: Real and Apparent Patterns in Community Structure.” In D. R. Strong, D. Simberloff, L. G. Abele, and A. B. Thistle: 3–18
    May, R. M. (1986). “The Search for Patterns in the Balance of Nature: Advances and Retreats.” Ecology 67: 1115–1126
    Mayr, E. (1961). “Cause and Effect in Biology.” Science 134: 1501–1506
    McIntosh, R. P. (1980). “The Background and Some Current Problems of Theoretical Ecology.” In E. Saarinen, ed.: 1–61
    McIntosh, R. P. (1985). The Background of Ecology. Cambridge Studies in Ecology. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
    McIntosh, R. P. (1987). “Pluralism in Ecology.” Annual Review of Ecological Systems 18: 321–341
    McIntosh, R. P. (1992). “Whither Ecology?The Quarterly Review of Biology 67: 495–498
    McIntosh, R. P. (1995). “H. A. Gleason's ‘Individualistic Concept’ and Theory of Animal Communities: A Continuing Controversy.” Biological Review 70: 317–357
    McMullin, E. (1985). “Galilean Idealization.” Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science 16: 264–265
    Mertz, D. B. and D. E. McCauley (1980). “The Domain of Laboratory Ecology.” In E. Saarinen: 229–244
    Murdoch, W. W. (1994). “Population Regulation in Theory and Practice.” Ecology 75: 271–287
    Murray, B. G. (1982). “On the Meaning of Density Dependence.” Oecologia 53: 370–373
    Murray, B. G. (1987). “The Calculation of the Rate of Increase, R, of Populations with Heterogeneous Life Histories.” Oikos 50: 262–266
    Murray, B. G. (1998). “Can the Population Regulation Controversy Be Buried and Forgotten?Oikos 84: 148–152
    Naess, A. (1973). “The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movement.” Inquiry 16: 95–100
    Nagel, E. (1961). The Structure of Science. New York, Harcourt, Brace and World
    Nersessian, N. J. (1991). “How Do Scientists Think? Capturing the Dynamics of Conceptual Change in Science.” In R. N. Giere: 3–44
    Nicholson, A. J. (1933). “The Balance of Animal Populations.” Journal of Animal Ecology 2: 132–178
    Nicholson, A. J. (1954). “An Outline of the Dynamics of Animal Populations.” Australian Journal of Zoology 2: 9–65
    Nicholson, A. J. (1957). “Discussion” from L. C. Birch, “The Role of Weather in Determining the Distribution and Abundance of Animals.” Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology: 216
    Nicholson, A. J. (1960). “The Role of Population Dynamics in Natural Selection.” In S. Tax, ed.: 477–522
    Nicholson, A. J. and V. A. Bailey (1935). The Balance of Animal Populations. London, Zoological Society of London
    Nitecki, M. H. and A. Hoffman, eds. (1987). Neutral Models in Biology. New York, Oxford University Press
    Odum, E. (1953). Fundamentals of Ecology. Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders
    Orians, G. H. (1962). “Natural Selection and Ecological Theory.” The American Naturalist 46: 257–263
    Orians, G. H. et al. (1986). Ecological Knowledge and Environmental Problem-Solving: Concepts and Case Studies. Washington, DC, Academy Press
    Orzack, S. H. and , E. Sober (1993). “A Critical Assessment of Levins's ‘The Strategy of Model Building in Population Biology (1966).’The Quarterly Review of Biology 68: 533–546
    Orzack, S. H. and , E. Sober (1994). “Optimality Models and the Test of Adaptationism.” American Naturalist 143: 361–380
    Osherson, D. and , S. Weinstein (1989). “Paradigms of Truth Detection.” Journal of Philosophical Logic 18: 1–42
    Ospovat, D. (1981). The Development of Darwin's Theory: Natural History, Natural Theology, and Natural Selection, 1838–1859. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
    Oster, G. F. and E. O. Wilson (1978). Caste and Ecology in the Social Insects. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press
    Pagel, M. D. and , P. H. Harvey (1988). “Recent Developments in the Analysis of Comparative Data.” Quarterly Review of Biology 64: 413–440
    Paine, R. T. (1966). “Food Web Complexity and Species Diversity.” The American Naturalist 100: 65–75
    Paine, R. T. and , R. L. Vadas (1969). “The Effects of Grazing by Sea Urchins, Strongylocentroutus spp. on Benthic Algal Populations.” Limnology and Oceanography 14: 710–719
    Patten, B. C., ed. (1971). Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology. Vol. 1. New York, Academic Press
    Pearl, R. and , L. J. Reed (1920). “On the Rate of Growth of the Population of the United States since 1920 and Its Mathematical Representation.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 6: 275–288
    Peters, R. H. (1976). “Tautology in Evolution and Ecology.” American Naturalist 110: 1–12
    Peters, R. H. (1980). “Useful Concepts for Predictive Ecology.” In E. Saarinen: 215– 228
    Peters, R. H. (1983). The Ecological Implications of Body Size. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
    Peters, R. H. (1991). A Critique for Ecology. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
    Pianka, E. (1983). Evolutionary Ecology. New York, Harper & Row
    Pickett, S. T. A., J. Kolasa, and C. G. Jones (1994). Ecological Understanding. New York, Academic Press
    Pielou, E. C. (1977). Mathematical Ecology. New York, John Wiley
    Pielou, E. C. (1981). “The Usefulness of Ecological Models: A Stock-Taking.” The Quarterly Review of Biology 56: 17–31
    Pietroski, P. and , G. Rey (1995). “When Other Things Aren't Equal: Saving ‘Ceteris Paribus’ Laws from Vacuity.” British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 46(1): 81–110
    Pimm, S. L. (1991). The Balance of Nature?: Ecological Issues in the Conservation of Species and Communities. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
    Platt, J. R. (1964). “Strong Inference.” Science 146: 347–353
    Preston, F. W. (1969). “Diversity and Stability in the Biological World.” In Brookhaven Symposia in Biology: 1–12
    Price, D. J. d. S. (1961). Science since Babylon. New Haven, CT, Yale University Press
    Price, P. W. (1984). “Alternative Paradigms in Community Ecology.” In P. W. Price, C. N. Slobodchikoff, and William S. Gaud, eds.: 354–383
    Price, P. W., C. N. Slobodchikoff, and William S. Gaud (1984). A New Ecology: Novel Approaches to Interactive Systems. New York, Wiley
    Price, P. W., William S. Gaud, and C. N. Slobodchikoff (1984). “Introduction: Is There a New Ecology?” In P. W Price, C. N. Slobodchikoff, and William S. Gaud, eds.: 2–11
    Price, P. W. and M. D. Hunter (1995). “Novelty and Synthesis in the Development of Population Dynamics.” In N. Cappuccino and P. W. Price, eds.: 389–413
    Prout, T. (1965). “The Estimation of Fitness from Genotypic Frequencies.” Evolution 19: 546–551
    Putman, R. J. and S. D. Wratten (1984). Principles of Ecology. Berkeley, University of California Press
    Railton, P. (1981). “Probability, Explanation, and Information.” Synthese 48: 233–256
    Ramensky, L. G. (1924). “Basic Regularities of Vegetation Covers and Their Study.” In Russian. Vĕstnik Opytnogo dêla Stedne-chernoz. Ob., Voronezh: 37–73
    Real, L. A. and J. H. Brown, eds. (1991). Foundations of Ecology. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
    Reddingius, J. (1971). “Gambling for Existence: A Discussion of Some Theoretical Problems in Animal Populations Ecology.” Acta Biotheoretica 20(suppl.): 1–20
    Resetarits, W. J. Jr. and J. Bernardo (1998). Experimental Ecology: Issues and Perspectives. New York, Oxford University Press
    Reeve, J. D., M. P. Ayers, and P. L. Lorio, Jr. (1995). “Host Suitability, Predation, and Bark Beetle Population Dynamics.” In N. Cappucino and P. W. Price, eds.: 339–358
    Rhodes, O. E., R. K, Chesser, and M. H. Smith, eds. (1996). Population Dynamics in Ecological Space and Time. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
    Richards, O. W. (1928). “Potentially Unlimited Multiplication of Yeast with Constant Environment, and the Limiting of Growth by Changing Environment.” Journal of General Physiology 11: 525
    Ricklefs, R. E. (1979). Ecology. New York, Chiron Press
    Ricklefs, R. E. (2000). “Density Dependence, Evolutionary Optimization, and the Diversification of Avian Life Histories.” The Condor 102: 9–22
    Ringler, N. H. (1979). “Selective Predation by Drift-feeding Brown Trout (Salmo trutta).” Journal of Fisheries Resource Board Canada 26: 392–403
    Rosenberg. A. (1985). The Structure of Biological Science. New York, Cambridge University Press
    Rosenberg, A. (1989). “From Reductionism to Instrumentalism.” In M. Ruse, ed.: 245–262
    Rosenberg, A. (1994). Instrumental Biology of the Disunity of Science. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
    Roughgarden, J. (1984). “Competition and Theory in Community Ecology.” In G. Salt, ed., Ecology and Evolutionary Biology. Chicago, University of Chicago Press: 3–21
    Roughgarden, J. (1986). “A Comparison of Food Limited and Space Limited Animal Competition Communities.” In J. Diamond and T. Case, eds., Community Ecology. New York, Harper & Row: 492–516
    Roughgarden, J. and J. Diamond (1986). “Overview: The Role of Species Interactions in Community Ecology.” In J. Diamond and T. J. Case, eds.: 333–343
    Roughgarden, J. S. D., R. M. May, and S. A. Levin, eds. (1989). Perspectives in Ecological Theory. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press
    Royama, T. (1992). Analytical Population Dynamics. London, Chapman & Hall
    Ruse, M., ed. (1989). What the Philosophy of Biology Is. Dordrecht, Holland, Kluwer Academic Publishers
    Saarinen, E., ed. (1980). Conceptual Issues in Ecology. Dordrecht, Holland, D. Reidel Publishing Company
    Salmon, W. (1984). Scientific Explanation and the Causal Structure of the World. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press
    Salmon, W. (1985). “Conflicting Conceptions of Scientific Explanation.” Journal of Philosophy 82: 651–654
    Salmon, W. (1989). Four Decades of Scientific Explanation. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press
    Salt, G. W., ed. (1984). Ecology and Evolutionary Biology: A Round Table on Research. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
    Sarkar, S. (1996). “Ecological Theory and Anuran Declines.” Bioscience 46: 199–207
    Schaffner, K. F. (1993). Discovery and Explanation in Biology and Medicine. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
    Schimper, A. F. W. (1898). Pflanzen-Geographie auf physiologischer Grundlage. Jena, Fischer
    Schoener, T. W. (1969). “Optimal Size and Specialization in Constant and Fluctuating Environments: An Energy-Time Approach.” In Brookhaven Symposia in Biology: 103–114
    Schoener, T. W. (1986a). “Mechanistic Approaches to Community Ecology: A New Reductionism?American Zoologist 26(1): 81–106
    Schoener, T. W. (1986b). “Overview: Kinds of Ecological Communities – Ecology Becomes Pluralistic.” In J. Diamond and T. Case, eds.: 467–479
    Schoener, T. W. (1989). “The Ecological Niche.” In Cherrett, ed.: 79–114
    Schultze, E.-D. and H. A. Mooney, eds. (1994). Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function. Berlin, Springer Verlag
    Scudo, F. and J. R. Ziegler (1978). The Golden Age of Theoretical Ecology, 1923–1940. New York, Springer-Verlag
    Semper, K. (1881). Animal Life as Affected by the Natural Conditions of Existence. New York, Appleton
    Shapere, D. (1974). “Discovery, Rationality, and Progress in Science: A Perspective in the Philosophy of Science.” In K. F. Schaffner and R. Cohen, eds.: 407–419
    Shelford, V. E. (1911). “Physiological Animal Geography.” Journal of Morphology 22: 551–618
    Shelford, V. E. (1918). “Conditions of Existence.” In H. Ward and G. Whipple, eds.: 21–60
    Shipley, B. and , P. A. Keddy (1987). “The Individualistic and Community-Unit Concepts as Falsifiable Hypotheses.” Vegetatio 69: 47–55
    Shipley, B. and , R. H. Peters (1991) “The Seduction by Mechanism: A Reply to Tilman.” The American Naturalist 138: 1276–1282
    Shrader-Frechette, K. S. (1989). “Idealized Laws, Anti-Realism, and Applied Science: A Case in Hydrogeology.” Synthese 81: 329–352
    Shrader-Frechette, K. S. and E. D. McCoy (1993). Method in Ecology. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
    Simberloff, D. (1984). “Competition Theory, Hypothesis Testing, and Other Community Ecological Buzzwords.” In G. W. Salt, ed.: 46–55
    Simberloff, D. (1986). “Design of Nature Reserves.” In M. B. Usher, ed. Wildlife Conservation Evaluation. London, Chapman and Hall: 315–337
    Simberloff, D. (1987). “Simplification, Danger, and Ethics in Conservation Biology.” Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 68: 156–157
    Simberloff, D. and , E. O. Wilson (1969). “Experimental Zoogeography of Islands. The Colonization of Empty Islands.” Ecology 50: 278–296
    Simberloff, D. and , W. Boecklen (1981). “Santa Rosalia Reconsidered: Size Ratios and Competition.” Evolution 35: 1206–1228
    Skyrms, B. (1980). Casual Necessity. New Haven, CT, Yale University Press
    Slobodkin, L. B. (1962). Growth and Regulation of Animal Populations. New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston
    Sloep, P. B. (1993). “Methodology Revitalized?British Journal of Philosophy and Science 44: 231–249
    Smart, J. J. C. (1963). Philosophy and Scientific Realism. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul
    Smith, T. and , M. Huston (1989). “A Theory of the Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Plant Communities.” Vegetatio 83: 49–69
    Sober, E. (1983). “Equilibrium Explanation.” Philosophical Studies 43: 201–210
    Sober, E. (1993). Philosophy of Biology. San Francisco, Westview Press
    Stauffer, R. C. (1957). “Haeckel, Darwin, and Ecology.” Quarterly Review of Biology 32: 138–144
    Stearns, S. (1982). “The Emergence of Evolutionary and Community Ecology as Experimental Sciences.” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 25(4): 621–648
    Strong, D. R. (1984a). “Density-Vague Ecology and Liberal Population Regulation in Insects.” In P. W. Price, C. N. Slobodchikoff, and William S. Gaud, eds.: 313–327
    Strong, D. R. (1984b). “Natural Variability and the Manifold Mechanisms of Ecological Communities.” In G. W. Salt, ed.: 56–80
    Strong, D. R. (1986). “Density Vagueness: Abiding the Variance in the Demography of Real Populations.” In J. Diamond and T. Case, eds.: 257–268
    Strong, D. R., S. Simberloff, L. G. Abele, and A. B. Thistle, eds. (1984). Ecological Communities: Conceptual Issues and the Evidence. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press
    Tansley, A. G. (1935). “The Use and Abuse of Vegetational Concepts and Terms.” Ecology 16: 284–307
    Tax, S., ed. (1960). Evolution after Darwin: The University of Chicago Centennial. Vol. 1, The Evolution of Life: Its Origins, History, and Future. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
    Thompson, W. R. (1939). “Biological Control and the Theories of the Interaction of Populations.” Parasitology 31: 299–388
    Tilman, D. (1989). “Discussion: Population Dynamics and Species Interactions.” In J. S. D. Roughgarden, R. M. May, and S. A. Levin, eds.: 89–100
    Tilman, D. (1991). “The Schism between Theory and Ardent Empiricism: A Reply to Shipley and Peters.” The American Naturalist 138: 1283–1286
    Tilman, D. (1994a). “Community Diversy and Succession: The Roles of Competition, Dispersal, and Habitat Modification.” In E.-D. Schultze and H. A. Mooney, eds.: 328–344
    Tilman, D. (1994b). “Competition and Biodiversity in Spatially Structured Habitats.” Ecology 75(1): 2–16
    Tilman, D. and P. Kareiva (1997). Spatial Ecology: The Role of Space in Population Dynamics and Interspecific Interactions. Monographs in Population Biology, No. 30. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press
    Tobey, R. (1981). Saving the Prairies: The Life Cycle of the Founding School of American Plant Ecology, 1895–1955. Berkeley, University of California Press
    Townsend, C. R. and P. Calow, eds. (1981). Physiological Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach to Resource Use. Sunderland, MA, Sinauer Associates
    Turchin, P., , W. M. Getz, , D. E. Taneyhill, and , L. Ginzburg (1993). “The Logistic Equation Revisited: Final Installment,” in “Letters to the Editor.” Trends in Environmental Ecology 8: 68–70
    Turchin, P. (1995). “Population Regulation: Old Arguments and a New Synthesis.” In N. Cappuccino and P. W. Price, eds.: 19–41
    Turchin, P. (1999). “Population Regulation: A Synthetic View.” Oikos 84: 153–159
    Turchin, P. and , A. A. Berryman (2000). “Detecting Cycles and Delayed Density Dependence: A Comment on Hunter and Price (1998).” Ecological Entomology 25: 119–121
    Underwood, A. J. and E. J. Denley (1984). “Paradigms, Explanations and Generalizations in Models for the Structure of Intertidal Communities on Rocky Shores.” In D. R. Strong, Jr., D. Simberloff, L. G. Abele, and A. B. Thistle, eds.: 151–180
    van Fraassen, B. C. (1980). The Scientific Image. Oxford, Clarendon Press
    van Fraassen, B. C. (1989). Laws and Symmetry. Oxford, Clarendon Press
    Vepsäläinen, K. and , B. Pisarski (1982). “Assembly of Island Ant Communities.” Annales Zoologici Fennici 19: 327–335
    Vernadsky, W. I. (1944). “Problems of Biogeochemistry I. The Fundamental Matter-Energy Difference between the Living and Inert Bodies of the Biosphere.” Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences 35: 483–517
    Volterra, V. (1926). “Fluctuations in the Abundance of a Species Considered Mathematically.” Nature 118: 558–560
    Wainwright, P. C. and S. M. Reilly (1994). Ecological Morphology: Integrative Organismal Biology. Chicago, University of Chicago Press
    Walter, G. H. and , H. E. H. Paterson (1995). “Levels of understanding in ecology: interspecific competition and community ecology.” Australian Journal of Ecology 20: 463–466
    Ward H. and G. Whipple, eds. (1918). Freshwater Biology. New York, Wiley
    Warming, E. (1895). Oecology of Plants: An Introduction to the Study of Plant Communities. Oxford, Clarendon Press
    Werner, E. (1984). “The Mechanisms of Species Interactions and Community Organization in Fish.” In D. R. Strong, D. Simberloff, L. Abele, and A. Thistle, eds.: 360–382
    Werner, E. (1986). “Species Interactions in Freshwater Fish Communities.” In J. Diamond and T. J. Case, eds.: 344–358
    Werner, E. and , D. J. Hall (1974). “Optimal Foraging and the Size Selection of Prey by the Bluegill Sunfish (‘Lepomis Macrochirus’).” Ecology 55: 1042–1052
    Werner, E. and , D. J. Hall (1976). “Niche Shifts in Sunfishes: Experimental Evidence and Significance.” Science 191: 404–406
    Werner, E. and , D. J. Hall (1977). “Competition and Habitat Shift in Two Sunfishes (‘Centrarchidae’).” Ecology 58: 869–876
    Werner, E. and , D. J. Hall (1979). “Foraging Efficiency and Habitat Switching in Competing Sunfishes.” Ecology 60: 256–264
    Werner, E. and , G. G. Mittelbach (1981). “Optimal Foraging: Field Tests of Diet Choice and Habitat Switching.” American Zoologist 21: 813–829
    Werner, E., , J. F. Gilliam, , D. J. Hall, and , G. G. Mittelbach (1983a). “An Experimental Test of the Effects of Predation Risk on Habitat Use in Fish.” Ecology 64: 1540–1548
    Werner, E., , G. G. Mittelbach, , D. J. Hall, and , J. F. Gilliam (1983b). “Experimental Tests of Optimal Habitat Use in Fish: The Role of Relative Habitat Profitability.” Ecology 64: 1525–1539
    White, T. C. R. (1993). The Inadequate Environment: Nitrogen and the Abundance of Animals. Berlin, Springer-Verlag
    Whittaker, R. H. (1975). Communities and Ecosystems. 2nd ed. New York, Macmillan
    Wilbur, H. M. and J. Travis (1984). “An Experimental Approach to Understanding Pattern in Natural Communities.” In D. R. Strong, D. Simberloff, L. Abele, and A. Thistle, eds.: 113–122
    Williams, G. C. (1957). “Pleiotropy, Natural Selection, and the Evolution of Senescence.” Evolution 11: 398–411
    Williams, G. C. (1966). Adaptation and Natural Selection. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press
    Wilson, D. S. (1986). “Adaptive Indirect Effects.” In J. Diamond and T. Case, eds.: 437–444
    Wilson, E. O. (1969). “The New Population Biology.” Science 163: 1184–1185
    Wimsatt, W. C. (1980). “Randomness and Perceived-Randomness in Evolutionary Theory.” In E. Saarinen, ed.: 279–322
    Wimsatt, W. C. (1987). “False Models as Means to Truer Theories.” In M. H. Nitecki and A. Hoffman, eds.: 23–55
    Wolda, H. (1989). “The Equilibrium Concept and Density Dependence Tests: What Does It All Mean?Oecologia 81: 430–432
    Wolda, H. (1991). “The Usefulness of the Equilibrium Concept in Population Dynamics.” Oecologia 86: 144–145
    Wolda, H., , B. Dennis, and , M. L. Taper (1994). “Density Dependent Tests, and Largely Futile Comments: Answers to Holyoak and Lawton (1993) and Hanski, Woiwod and Perry (1993).” Oecologia 98: 229–234
    Wolters, G., J. G. Lennox, and P. McLaughlin, eds. (1995). Concepts, Theories, and Rationality in the Biological Sciences. Pittsburgh, PA, University of Pittsburgh Press
    Woodward, J. (1989). “Data and Phenomena.” Synthese 79: 393–472
    Woodward, J. (1993). “Capacities and Invariance.” In J. Earman, I. Janis, G. J. Massey and N. Rescher, eds.: 283–328
    Woodward, J. (1997). “Explanation, Invariance, and Intervention.” Philosophy of Science 64: S26-S41
    Worster, D. (1993a). “The Ecology of Order and Chaos.” In D. Worster: 156–170
    Worster, D. (1993b). The Wealth of Nature. New York, Oxford University Press
    Wright, S. (1940). “Breeding Structure of Populations in Relation to Speciation.” American Naturalist 74: 232–248

    Metrics

    Altmetric attention score

    Full text views

    Total number of HTML views: 0
    Total number of PDF views: 0 *
    Loading metrics...

    Book summary page views

    Total views: 0 *
    Loading metrics...

    * Views captured on Cambridge Core between #date#. This data will be updated every 24 hours.

    Usage data cannot currently be displayed.

    Accessibility standard: Unknown

    Accessibility compliance for the PDF of this book is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.