Introduction

Democracy in Europe currently faces multiple challenges stemming from strengthened neo-nationalist movements, the democratic deficit of the European Union (EU), and the effects of grand global issues including the changing climate, pandemics, migration, and, most recently, the Russian war within the east of Europe (Cambien et al, 2020). Especially in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), processes of de-Europeanization and de-democratization as well as a strengthening of political authoritarianism have been observed (Szymański, 2017). Citizenship education has been ascribed an important role by policy makers, civil society, and academics alike. Citizenship education can be understood as a concept that encompasses all educational efforts to qualify citizens to responsibly participate in social and democratic life (Solhaug, 2013). It can thus serve as a response to the developments mentioned previously since it has the potential to prepare learners for the challenges of the 21st century by using the indicated issues as learning opportunities and contributing to the development of civic competences (Besand, 2020).

However, the concept and practice of citizenship education is itself the subject of broad discussions and changes, especially in times of crisis (Ben-Porath, 2006). As comparative studies indicate, the way that citizenship education is currently understood and practised across European states is diverging: ‘Given that there is not one type of ideal citizen, there is not a single type of citizenship education either’ (EACEA, 2017, p 20). Thus, it can be seen as a complex matter linking a multitude of actors and levels.