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Chapter 21 - HIV/AIDS

from Section 4 - Major Common Infections

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 June 2025

By
Nyasha Veronica Dzavakwa ,
Sara Lowe  and
Rashida Abbas Ferrand
Edited by
David Mabey ,
Martin W. Weber ,
Moffat Nyirenda ,
Dorothy Yeboah-Manu ,
Jackson Orem ,
Laura Benjamin ,
Michael Marks  and
Nicholas A. Feasey
David Mabey
Affiliation:
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine
Martin W. Weber
Affiliation:
World Health Organization
Moffat Nyirenda
Affiliation:
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine
Dorothy Yeboah-Manu
Affiliation:
Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana
Jackson Orem
Affiliation:
Uganda Cancer Institute, Kampala
Laura Benjamin
Affiliation:
University College London
Michael Marks
Affiliation:
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine
Nicholas A. Feasey
Affiliation:
Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine
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Summary

In 1982, physicians in South-west Uganda noticed a new disease with prominent symptoms of weight loss and diarrhoea, known locally as slim disease, and in 1983 patients with opportunistic infections and Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS) were identified in hospitals in Rwanda and Zaire. These observations were made shortly after reports of clusters of unusual diseases associated with profound immunosuppression among men who had sex with men in the USA. These reports were the first to draw public attention to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), undoubtedly one of the greatest challenges to global public health of our times.

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Principles of Medicine in Africa , pp. 237 - 279
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2025

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References

Further Reading

HIV medicine is a fast-moving field, and the internet is often the best source of up-to-date information. The WHO website has a wealth of guidelines which include supporting references, and national guidelines such as those from the USA and UK often include useful detail on the evidence base supporting the recommendations.Google Scholar
British HIV Association website: www.bhiva.org. This website includes a range of guidelines aimed at UK physicians but which may be more widely useful, for example guidelines on the management of HIV-2 infection. It also has a range of links relevant to clinical HIV care, for example to detailed information about drugs, and to websites about HIV drug interactions and the interpretation of resistance mutations.Google Scholar
AIDS Info Clinical Guidelines Portal: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/guidelines/ (links to US guidelines on HIV treatment and management of opportunistic infections).Google Scholar
HIV Insite: http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/InSite?page=cr- 00–04 (lists links to many international guidelines on HIV treatment and care).Google Scholar
HIV medicine: an online textbook. hivmedicine. com/index.htm.Google Scholar
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Anglaret, X, Chêne, G, Attia, A et al. (1999). Early chemoprophylaxis with trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole for HIV-1-infected adults in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire: a randomised trial. Lancet; 353: 1463–8.10.1016/S0140-6736(98)07399-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Attia, S, Egger, M, Muller, M et al. (2009). Sexual transmission of HIV according to viral load and antiretroviral therapy: systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS; 23: 1397–404.10.1097/QAD.0b013e32832b7dcaCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baeten, JM, Chohan, B, Lavreys, L et al. (2007). HIV-1 subtype D infection is associated with faster disease progression than subtype A in spite of similar plasma HIV-1 loads. J Infect Dis; 195: 1177–80.10.1086/512682CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blanc, FX, Sok, T, Laureillard, D et al. (2011). Earlier versus later start of antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected adults with tuberculosis. N Engl J Med; 365(16): 1471–81.10.1056/NEJMoa1013911CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boulware, DR, Meya, DB, Muzoora, C et al. (2014). Timing of antiretroviral therapy after diagnosis of cryptococcal meningitis. N Engl J Med; 370(26): 2487–98.10.1056/NEJMoa1312884CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buvé, A, Caraël, M, Hayes, RJ et al. (2001). Multicentre study on factors determining differences in rate of spread of HIV in sub-Saharan Africa: methods and prevalence of HIV infection. AIDS; 15 Suppl 4: S5–14.10.1097/00002030-200108004-00002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Choko, AT, Desmond, N, Webb, EL et al (2011). The uptake and accuracy of oral kits for HIV self-testing in high HIV prevalence setting: a cross-sectional feasibility study in Blantyre, Malawi. PLoS Med; 8(10): e1001102.10.1371/journal.pmed.1001102CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, DB, Zijlstra, EE, Mukaka, M et al. (2010). Diagnosis of cryptococcal and tuberculous meningitis in a resource-limited African setting. Trop Med Int Health; 15: 910–17.10.1111/j.1365-3156.2010.02565.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, MS, Chen, YQ, McCauley, M et al. (2011). Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med; 365: 493–505.10.1056/NEJMoa1105243CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Decroo, T, Telfer, B, Dores, CD et al. (2017). Effect of Community ART Groups on retention-in-care among patients on ART in Tete Province, Mozambique: a cohort study. BMJ Open; 7(8): e016800.10.1136/bmjopen-2017-016800CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deeks, SG, Walker, BD (2007). Human immunodeficiency virus controllers: mechanisms of durable virus control in the absence of antiretroviral therapy. Immunity; 27: 406–16.10.1016/j.immuni.2007.08.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dlamini, SK, Madhi, SA, Muloiwa, R et al. (2018). Guidelines for the vaccination of HIV-infected adolescents and adults in South Africa. S Afr J HIV Med; 19(1): a839.10.4102/sajhivmed.v19i1.839CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dow, DE, Bartlett, JA (2014). Dolutegravir, the second-generation of Integrase Strand Transfer Inhibitors (INSTIs) for the treatment of HIV. Infect Dis Ther; 3: 83–102.10.1007/s40121-014-0029-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Sadr, WM, Lundgren, JD, Neaton, JD et al. (2006). CD4 count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med; 355: 2283–96.Google ScholarPubMed
Fatti, G, Ngorima-Mabhena, N, Mothibi, E, Muzenda, T et al. (2020). Outcomes of three- versus six-monthly dispensing of antiretroviral treatment (ART) for stable HIV patients in Community ART Refill Groups: a cluster-randomized trial in Zimbabwe. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr; 84: 162–72.10.1097/QAI.0000000000002333CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frigati, L, Ameyan, W, Cotton, MF et al. (2020). Chronic comorbidities in children and adolescents with perinatally acquired HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa in the era of antiretroviral therapy. Lancet Child Adolesc Health; 4(9): 688–98.10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30037-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gordon, MA, Graham, SM (2008). Invasive salmonellosis in Malawi. J Infect Dev Ctries; 2: 438–42.10.3855/jidc.158CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hakim, J, Musiime, V, Szubert AJ et al. (2017). Enhanced prophylaxis plus antiretroviral therapy for advanced HIV infection in Africa. N Engl J Med; 17 (377): 233–45.Google Scholar
Hayes, RJ, Schulz, KF, Plummer, FA (1995). The cofactor effect of genital ulcers on the per-exposure risk of HIV transmission in sub-Saharan Africa. J Trop Med Hyg; 98: 1–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Hollingsworth, TD, Laeyendecker, O, Shirreff, G et al. (2010). HIV-1 transmitting couples have similar viral load set-points in Rakai, Uganda. PLoS Pathog; 6: p e1000876.10.1371/journal.ppat.1000876CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katwere, M, Kambugu, A, Piloya, T et al. (2009). Clinical presentation and aetiologies of acute or complicated headache among HIV-seropositive patients in a Ugandan clinic. J Int AIDS Soc; 12: 21.10.1186/1758-2652-12-21CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kiwanuka, N, Laeyendecker, O, Robb, M et al. (2008). Effect of human immunodeficiency virus Type 1 (HIV-1) subtype on disease progression in persons from Rakai, Uganda, with incident HIV-1 infection. J Infect Dis; 197: 707–13.10.1086/527416CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lucas, SB, Hounnou, A, Peacock, C et al. (1993). The mortality and pathology of HIV infection in a West African city. AIDS; 7: 1569–79.10.1097/00002030-199312000-00005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lundgren JD, Babiker AG et al.; INSIGHT START Study Group, (2015). Initiation of antiretroviral therapy in early asymptomatic HIV infection. N Engl J Med; 373(9): 795–807.10.1056/NEJMoa1506816CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lynen, L, Zolfo, M, Huyst, V et al. (2005). Management of Kaposi’s sarcoma in resource-limited settings in the era of HAART. AIDS Rev; 7: 13–21.Google ScholarPubMed
Marlink, R, Kanki, P, Thior, I et al. (1994). Reduced rate of disease development after HIV-2 infection as compared to HIV-1. Science; 265: 1587–90.10.1126/science.7915856CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martinez-Steele, E, Awasana, AA, Corrah, T et al. (2007). Is HIV-2-induced AIDS different from HIV-1-associated AIDS? Data from a West African clinic. AIDS; 21: 317–24.10.1097/QAD.0b013e328011d7abCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meintjes, G, Wilkinson, RJ, Morroni, C et al. (2010). Randomized placebo-controlled trial of prednisone for paradoxical tuberculosis-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. AIDS; 24: 2381–90.10.1097/QAD.0b013e32833dfc68CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morgan, D, Ross, A, Mayanja, B et al. (1998). Early manifestations (pre-AIDS) of HIV-1 infection in Uganda. AIDS; 12: 591–6.10.1097/00002030-199806000-00007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muller, M, Wandel, S, Colebunders, R et al. (2010). Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in patients starting antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis; 10: 251–61.10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70026-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Payne, C, Kohler, H-P (2017). The population-level impact of public-sector antiretroviral therapy rollout on adult mortality in rural Malawi. Demogr Res; 36: 1081–108.10.4054/DemRes.2017.36.37CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phipps, W, Ssewankambo, F, Nguyen, H et al. (2010). Gender differences in clinical presentation and outcomes of epidemic Kaposi sarcoma in Uganda. PLoS ONE; 5: e13936.Google Scholar
Reddy, EA, Shaw, AV, Crump, JA (2010). Community-acquired bloodstream infections in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis; 10: 417–32.10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70072-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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Sharp, PM, Hahn, BH (2010). The evolution of HIV-1 and the origin of AIDS. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci; 365: 2487–94.10.1098/rstb.2010.0031CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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Anglaret, X, Chêne, G, Attia, A et al. (1999). Early chemoprophylaxis with trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole for HIV-1-infected adults in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire: a randomised trial. Lancet; 353: 1463–8.10.1016/S0140-6736(98)07399-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Attia, S, Egger, M, Muller, M et al. (2009). Sexual transmission of HIV according to viral load and antiretroviral therapy: systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS; 23: 1397–404.10.1097/QAD.0b013e32832b7dcaCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baeten, JM, Chohan, B, Lavreys, L et al. (2007). HIV-1 subtype D infection is associated with faster disease progression than subtype A in spite of similar plasma HIV-1 loads. J Infect Dis; 195: 1177–80.10.1086/512682CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blanc, FX, Sok, T, Laureillard, D et al. (2011). Earlier versus later start of antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected adults with tuberculosis. N Engl J Med; 365(16): 1471–81.10.1056/NEJMoa1013911CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boulware, DR, Meya, DB, Muzoora, C et al. (2014). Timing of antiretroviral therapy after diagnosis of cryptococcal meningitis. N Engl J Med; 370(26): 2487–98.10.1056/NEJMoa1312884CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buvé, A, Caraël, M, Hayes, RJ et al. (2001). Multicentre study on factors determining differences in rate of spread of HIV in sub-Saharan Africa: methods and prevalence of HIV infection. AIDS; 15 Suppl 4: S5–14.10.1097/00002030-200108004-00002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Choko, AT, Desmond, N, Webb, EL et al (2011). The uptake and accuracy of oral kits for HIV self-testing in high HIV prevalence setting: a cross-sectional feasibility study in Blantyre, Malawi. PLoS Med; 8(10): e1001102.10.1371/journal.pmed.1001102CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, DB, Zijlstra, EE, Mukaka, M et al. (2010). Diagnosis of cryptococcal and tuberculous meningitis in a resource-limited African setting. Trop Med Int Health; 15: 910–17.10.1111/j.1365-3156.2010.02565.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, MS, Chen, YQ, McCauley, M et al. (2011). Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med; 365: 493–505.10.1056/NEJMoa1105243CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Decroo, T, Telfer, B, Dores, CD et al. (2017). Effect of Community ART Groups on retention-in-care among patients on ART in Tete Province, Mozambique: a cohort study. BMJ Open; 7(8): e016800.10.1136/bmjopen-2017-016800CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deeks, SG, Walker, BD (2007). Human immunodeficiency virus controllers: mechanisms of durable virus control in the absence of antiretroviral therapy. Immunity; 27: 406–16.10.1016/j.immuni.2007.08.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dlamini, SK, Madhi, SA, Muloiwa, R et al. (2018). Guidelines for the vaccination of HIV-infected adolescents and adults in South Africa. S Afr J HIV Med; 19(1): a839.10.4102/sajhivmed.v19i1.839CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dow, DE, Bartlett, JA (2014). Dolutegravir, the second-generation of Integrase Strand Transfer Inhibitors (INSTIs) for the treatment of HIV. Infect Dis Ther; 3: 83–102.10.1007/s40121-014-0029-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Sadr, WM, Lundgren, JD, Neaton, JD et al. (2006). CD4 count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med; 355: 2283–96.Google ScholarPubMed
Fatti, G, Ngorima-Mabhena, N, Mothibi, E, Muzenda, T et al. (2020). Outcomes of three- versus six-monthly dispensing of antiretroviral treatment (ART) for stable HIV patients in Community ART Refill Groups: a cluster-randomized trial in Zimbabwe. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr; 84: 162–72.10.1097/QAI.0000000000002333CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frigati, L, Ameyan, W, Cotton, MF et al. (2020). Chronic comorbidities in children and adolescents with perinatally acquired HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa in the era of antiretroviral therapy. Lancet Child Adolesc Health; 4(9): 688–98.10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30037-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gordon, MA, Graham, SM (2008). Invasive salmonellosis in Malawi. J Infect Dev Ctries; 2: 438–42.10.3855/jidc.158CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hakim, J, Musiime, V, Szubert AJ et al. (2017). Enhanced prophylaxis plus antiretroviral therapy for advanced HIV infection in Africa. N Engl J Med; 17 (377): 233–45.Google Scholar
Hayes, RJ, Schulz, KF, Plummer, FA (1995). The cofactor effect of genital ulcers on the per-exposure risk of HIV transmission in sub-Saharan Africa. J Trop Med Hyg; 98: 1–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Hollingsworth, TD, Laeyendecker, O, Shirreff, G et al. (2010). HIV-1 transmitting couples have similar viral load set-points in Rakai, Uganda. PLoS Pathog; 6: p e1000876.10.1371/journal.ppat.1000876CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katwere, M, Kambugu, A, Piloya, T et al. (2009). Clinical presentation and aetiologies of acute or complicated headache among HIV-seropositive patients in a Ugandan clinic. J Int AIDS Soc; 12: 21.10.1186/1758-2652-12-21CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kiwanuka, N, Laeyendecker, O, Robb, M et al. (2008). Effect of human immunodeficiency virus Type 1 (HIV-1) subtype on disease progression in persons from Rakai, Uganda, with incident HIV-1 infection. J Infect Dis; 197: 707–13.10.1086/527416CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lucas, SB, Hounnou, A, Peacock, C et al. (1993). The mortality and pathology of HIV infection in a West African city. AIDS; 7: 1569–79.10.1097/00002030-199312000-00005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lundgren JD, Babiker AG et al.; INSIGHT START Study Group, (2015). Initiation of antiretroviral therapy in early asymptomatic HIV infection. N Engl J Med; 373(9): 795–807.10.1056/NEJMoa1506816CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lynen, L, Zolfo, M, Huyst, V et al. (2005). Management of Kaposi’s sarcoma in resource-limited settings in the era of HAART. AIDS Rev; 7: 13–21.Google ScholarPubMed
Marlink, R, Kanki, P, Thior, I et al. (1994). Reduced rate of disease development after HIV-2 infection as compared to HIV-1. Science; 265: 1587–90.10.1126/science.7915856CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martinez-Steele, E, Awasana, AA, Corrah, T et al. (2007). Is HIV-2-induced AIDS different from HIV-1-associated AIDS? Data from a West African clinic. AIDS; 21: 317–24.10.1097/QAD.0b013e328011d7abCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meintjes, G, Wilkinson, RJ, Morroni, C et al. (2010). Randomized placebo-controlled trial of prednisone for paradoxical tuberculosis-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. AIDS; 24: 2381–90.10.1097/QAD.0b013e32833dfc68CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morgan, D, Ross, A, Mayanja, B et al. (1998). Early manifestations (pre-AIDS) of HIV-1 infection in Uganda. AIDS; 12: 591–6.10.1097/00002030-199806000-00007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muller, M, Wandel, S, Colebunders, R et al. (2010). Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in patients starting antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis; 10: 251–61.10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70026-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Payne, C, Kohler, H-P (2017). The population-level impact of public-sector antiretroviral therapy rollout on adult mortality in rural Malawi. Demogr Res; 36: 1081–108.10.4054/DemRes.2017.36.37CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phipps, W, Ssewankambo, F, Nguyen, H et al. (2010). Gender differences in clinical presentation and outcomes of epidemic Kaposi sarcoma in Uganda. PLoS ONE; 5: e13936.Google Scholar
Reddy, EA, Shaw, AV, Crump, JA (2010). Community-acquired bloodstream infections in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis; 10: 417–32.10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70072-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robbins, R. N., Gouse, H., Brown, H. G. et al. (2018). A mobile app to screen for neurocognitive impairment: preliminary validation of NeuroScreen among HIV-infected South African adults. JMIR mHealth and uHealth; 6(1): e5.10.2196/mhealth.9148CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sacktor, NC, Wong, M, Makasujja, N et al. (2005). The International HIV Dementia Scale: a new rapid screening test for HIV dementia. AIDS; 19: 1367–74.Google Scholar
Sharp, PM, Hahn, BH (2010). The evolution of HIV-1 and the origin of AIDS. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci; 365: 2487–94.10.1098/rstb.2010.0031CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slogrove, AL, Schomaker, M, Davies, MA et al.; Collaborative Initiative for Paediatric HIV Education and Research (CIPHER) Global Cohort Collaboration (2018). The epidemiology of adolescents living with perinatally acquired HIV: a cross-region global cohort analysis. PLoS Med; 15(3): e1002514.Google Scholar
Taegtmeyer, M, Suckling, RM, Nguku, PM et al. (2008). Working with risk: occupational safety issues among healthcare workers in Kenya. AIDS Care; 20: 304–10.10.1080/09540120701583787CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Templeton, DJ (2010). Male circumcision to reduce sexual transmission of HIV. Curr Opin HIV AIDS; 5: 344–9.10.1097/COH.0b013e32833a46d3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Todd, J, Glynn, JR, Marston, M et al. (2007) Time from HIV seroconversion to death: a collaborative analysis of eight studies in six low and middle- income countries before highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS; 21 Suppl. 6: S55–63.10.1097/01.aids.0000299411.75269.e8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turkova, A et al. (2021). Dolutegravir-based ART is superior to NNRTI-PI-based ART in children and adolescents. Abstract 174. 29th Conference of Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, USA.Google Scholar
Vallari, A, Holzmayer, V, Harris, B et al. (2011). Confirmation of putative HIV-1 group P in Cameroon. J Virology; 85(3): 1403–7.10.1128/JVI.02005-10CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Violari, A, Cotton, MF, Gibb, DM et al. (2008). Early antiretroviral therapy and mortality among HIV-infected infants. N Engl J Med; 359: 2233–44.10.1056/NEJMoa0800971CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
WHO (2007). WHO case definitions of HIV for surveillance and revised clinical staging and immunological classification of HIV-related disease in adults and children. Geneva: WHO. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43699/9789241595629_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.Google Scholar
WHO (2009). Guidelines for using HIV testing technologies in surveillance: selection, evaluation and implementation. 2009 update. Geneva: WHO. www.who.int/hiv/pub/surveillance/hiv_testing_technologies_surveillance.pdf.Google Scholar
WHO (2010). Priority interventions: HIV/AIDS prevention, treatment and care in the health sector 2010. Geneva: WHO. https://www.who.int/hiv/pub/priority_interventions_web.pdf.Google Scholar
WHO (2011). Guidelines for intensified tuberculosis case-finding and isoniazid preventive therapy for people living with HIV in resource-constrained settings. Geneva: WHO. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789241500708_eng.pdf.Google Scholar
WHO (2014). Guidelines on post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV and the use of co-trimoxazole prophylaxis for HIV-related infections among adults, adolescents and children: recommendations for a public health approach. December 2014 supplement to the 2013 consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection. Geneva: WHO. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/145719/9789241508193_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.Google Scholar
WHO (2017a). Human papillomavirus vaccines: WHO position paper, May 2017 – Recommendations. Vaccine; 35(43): 5753–5.Google Scholar
WHO (2017b). HIV drug resistance report 2017. Geneva: WHO. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/255896/9789241512831-eng.pdf.Google Scholar
WHO (2018). Guidelines on the diagnosis, prevention and management of cryptococcal disease in HIV-infected adults, adolescents and children: supplement to the 2016 consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection. Geneva: WHO. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241550277.Google Scholar
WHO (2019a). Consolidated guidelines on HIV testing services. Geneva: WHO. www.who.int/publications/i/item/978-92-4-155058–1.Google Scholar
WHO (2019b). Lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan assay (LF-LAM) for the diagnosis of active tuberculosis in people living with HIV. Policy update. Geneva: WHO. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/329479/9789241550604-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.Google Scholar
WHO (2020). WHO operational handbook on tuberculosis (Module 1 – Prevention): Tuberculosis preventive treatment. Geneva: WHO. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/331525/9789240002906-eng.pdf.Google Scholar
WHO (2021a). Consolidated guidelines on HIV prevention, testing, treatment, service delivery and monitoring recommendations for a public health approach 2021. Geneva: WHO. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240031593.Google Scholar
WHO (2021b). Updated recommendations on HIV prevention, infant diagnosis, antiretroviral initiation and monitoring: March 2021. Geneva: WHO. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240022232.Google Scholar
Wiktor, SZ, Sassan-Morokro, M, Grant, AD et al. (1999). Efficacy of trimethoprim- sulphamethoxazole prophylaxis to decrease morbidity and mortality in HIV-1-infected patients with tuberculosis in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet; 353: 1469–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zash, R, Holmes, LB, Diseko, M et al. (2021). Update on neural tube defects with antiretroviral exposure in the Tsepamo study, Botswana. Abstract PEBLB14. 11th IAS Conference on HIV Science.Google ScholarPubMed

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WHO (2011). Guidelines for intensified tuberculosis case-finding and isoniazid preventive therapy for people living with HIV in resource-constrained settings. Geneva: WHO. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789241500708_eng.pdf.Google Scholar
WHO (2014). Guidelines on post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV and the use of co-trimoxazole prophylaxis for HIV-related infections among adults, adolescents and children: recommendations for a public health approach. December 2014 supplement to the 2013 consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection. Geneva: WHO. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/145719/9789241508193_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.Google Scholar
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WHO (2017b). HIV drug resistance report 2017. Geneva: WHO. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/255896/9789241512831-eng.pdf.Google Scholar
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WHO (2019a). Consolidated guidelines on HIV testing services. Geneva: WHO. www.who.int/publications/i/item/978-92-4-155058–1.Google Scholar
WHO (2019b). Lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan assay (LF-LAM) for the diagnosis of active tuberculosis in people living with HIV. Policy update. Geneva: WHO. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/329479/9789241550604-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.Google Scholar
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WHO (2021a). Consolidated guidelines on HIV prevention, testing, treatment, service delivery and monitoring recommendations for a public health approach 2021. Geneva: WHO. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240031593.Google Scholar
WHO (2021b). Updated recommendations on HIV prevention, infant diagnosis, antiretroviral initiation and monitoring: March 2021. Geneva: WHO. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240022232.Google Scholar
Wiktor, SZ, Sassan-Morokro, M, Grant, AD et al. (1999). Efficacy of trimethoprim- sulphamethoxazole prophylaxis to decrease morbidity and mortality in HIV-1-infected patients with tuberculosis in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet; 353: 1469–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
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