INTRODUCTION

The 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) recognised the need to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. More detailed goals and legal measures to reach these goals were developed by the Conference of the Parties (COP) of the UNFCCC and have been included in additional agreements like the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. Also the 28th COP, organised in Dubai in December 2023, stressed the need to reduce GHG emissions and limit the use of fossil fuels. Since World War II, developed countries have relied on the use of fossil fuels in (nearly) all economic sectors, including electricity generation. Globally, electricity generation is responsible for over a quarter of GHG emissions5 and thus attempts are made to decarbonise the power system. A key instrument is to use renewable energy sources as a primary source in power generation instead of fossil fuels. Many countries need to rely on solar and wind energy to replace fossil-based power generation. However, solar and wind are intermittent in nature. This variability poses challenges for the availability of electricity as well as the balance of the electricity network which operates within limited voltage and frequency values.

The EU and its Member States are party to the UNCCFC and have issued a wide range of measures to combat CO2 emissions, ranging from permitting CO2 emissions and trading CO2 emission rights via the EU Emissions Trading System to obliging Member States to consume specific levels of renewable energy sources.