The siege played such a dominant role in both medieval and early modern warfare that it is difficult to overstate the significance of the twin revolutions in gunpowder artillery and fortification which together transformed fortress warfare and the face of Europe. The continent was to be marked by chains of new frontier and coastal forts, expanded naval bases, and girdles of earth-filled ramparts and bastions around towns, often sweeping away picturesque medieval walls and towers and replacing them by much lower-profile works. The rash of urban citadels by which so many rulers sought to guarantee their security would be matched by what Parker called the ‘demilitarised zone’ of central France following the Wars of Religion and the Fronde. Ruined fortresses litter the continent. The demolitions following most civil wars, rebellions, or frontier adjustments speak to the importance of fortified places. Whether it was the local power projected by castle or border fort or the major concentration of resources protected by walled towns or major fortresses, fortified places were the main objective of offensive operations.