Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 September 2025
An oft-repeated aphorism is that the Arab world is in deep crisis, and this was on full display during the Arab Spring rebellions. It has been a decade since people across the Arab world rose up in revolt against their governments in 2010/11, demanding political empowerment, social reform, economic improvement, and, most importantly, the restoration of dignity and human rights. Pro-democracy protests, as they were colloquially known, spread quickly through the mobilisation of social media calls, eventually overthrowing long-standing authoritarian regimes in Tunisia, Egypt, Yemen, and Libya. Following decades of mismanagement and stagnation, these events sparked hope for a more representative future and economic reforms. However, hopes for broader reform were quickly dashed, as the political vacuum left by regional dictatorships exacerbated ethnic, religious, and tribal divisions in many of these societies, sparking gruesome and protracted violence, mass displacement, and worsening repression by existing regimes in some parts of the region.
Egypt's brief alliance with democracy was shattered by a neo-militarist, counter-revolutionary takeover, as Islamists and secularists vied for power. Protests against long-standing authoritarian rulers in Yemen, Libya, and Syria sparked brutal civil wars that have raged for more than a decade. Tunisia is a notable exception, where both political factions have resolved to settle their differences through dialogue and set the tone for democratic politics, which is still ongoing. The country continues to struggle with political reconciliation and economic transformation. Even the Gulf monarchies, which appeared to be peaceful, faced protests that called their legitimacy and continued existence into question.
When anti-government protests erupted in Bahrain in 2011, Saudi Arabia intervened militarily to put an end to the uprising and prevent it from spreading to the restive al-Hasa province. Since the establishment of the Saudi state in 1932, the Shia population has been subjected to systematic socioeconomic marginalisation and dispossession, and they continue to be a highly disenfranchised segment of Saudi society. Despite ongoing sporadic protests, which have gradually shifted to social media, there have been no significant changes in people's political and social lives. To counteract challenges to its legitimacy, Bahrain's Sunni minority ruling class continues to promote and strengthen Shia-Sunni identity politics within a system of group privileges.
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