In democracies based on elections, representation brings a novel kind of freedom to the fore, one that does not need to be associated with the citizen’s direct action or presence in the place where decisions are made, as is the case in direct democracy. It enlarges the space and meaning of politics in ways that cannot easily be reduced to electoral authorization and consent, and it invariably connects with both the lawmaking institution and the citizens’ voluntary participation, their equal right to define the political direction of their country but also claim, vindicate, and monitor their representatives. This chapter analyzes “political representation” in its actors, components and processes and compared it to other forms (as statistical sample and embodiment) and finally discusses the implications of the mixture of representation and democracy in contemporary politics.

This chapter delves into mass criminalization and mass incarceration. It examines the role that race plays at each level of the criminal justice system from the initial decision of law enforcement officials to engage with members of the public through to the trial and sentencing phases. Throughout, we seek to understand and illustrate the impact of individual bias and structural discrimination. We then end by highlighting the enormous racial disparities that the system fosters and by considering several alternative avenues for reform.

How do women access social, economic, and political power in settings where multiple, interlinked systems prevent female influence and agency? More fundamentally: how does a low status group challenge and destabilize what prior to that point appeared to be a highly stable, inegalitarian system? In this chapter, I construct a theory linking women’s political representation to their economic agency. I utilize analysis of electoral behavior and negotiations of political authority and rights garnered from extensive field research to develop my “gatekeeper theory” of how women’s representation impacts enforcement of economic rights and subsequent welfare. I argue that constitutional reforms mandating female representation catalyze change. We see this clearly where economic reforms present an opportunity for women to translate political voice into entitlements to inherit the most precious resource and primary repository of wealth in contemporary India: land. Whether an individual experiences backlash or benefits depends on her bargaining power at the time she gains enforceable property rights, thanks to the confluence of reform and quotas mandating female representation. I include individual narratives to explain the scope and significance of my theory. I also investigate how social norms and their enforcement and contestation are evolving in light of changing political representation.