There is growing evidence that language plays an important role in emotion because it helps people acquire emotion concept knowledge. In this chapter, we argue that language plays a mechanistic role in emotion because emotion concept knowledge, once acquired, is used by the brain to predictively and adaptively regulate a person’s subjective emotional experiences and behaviors. Building on predictive processing models of brain function, we argue that the emotion concepts learned via language during early development “seed” the brain’s emotional predictions throughout the lifespan. We review constructionist theories of emotion and their support in behavioral, physiological, neuroimaging, and lesion data. We then situate these constructionist predictions within recent neuroscience research to speculate on the neural mechanisms by which emotion concepts “seed” emotional experiences.

Decades of research demonstrate cultural variation in different aspects of emotion, including the focus of emotion, expressive values and norms, and experiential ideals and values. These studies have focused primarily on Western and East Asian cultural comparisons, although recent work has included Latinx samples. In this chapter, we discuss why studying culture is important for studies of emotion and what neuroscientific methods can contribute to our understanding of culture and emotion. We then describe research that uses neuroscientific methods to explore both cultural differences and similarities in emotion. Finally, we discuss current challenges and outstanding questions for future research.

While the preceding two chapters focused on the physiological domains whose motions take place ‘by nature’, that is, involuntarily, this chapter looks at the activities of the physiological system responsible for the motion ‘by will’. Galen depends on Hellenistic anatomists, especially Herophilus, for much of what he knows about the nervous system, but this chapter looks at both inherited knowledge and polemic interaction. In a rare case of disagreement, Galen criticizes Herophilus regarding the claims about the inherent sensitivity of the nerve tissue. The fact that Galen does not accept Herophilus’ experiments and maintains that nerves only receive capacity from the brain shapes his understanding of this physiological domain. The activities of the nervous system encompass not only voluntary motion but also sense perception and pain, and this chapter argues that each of them has distinctive implications for the unity of the living body as a whole.

Pain is a complex experience that includes physical sensations and emotional responses. Research has shown that the central nervous system plays a significant role in how we experience pain. In this chapter, we review the current understanding of the neuroscience of pain, with a particular emphasis on pain processing in the brain. We cover early theories that emphasized the brain’s role in integrating and modulating pain, as well as modern approaches that view pain as distributed processing in the brain. We also introduce functional and computational frameworks for understanding the sensory and motivational aspects of pain and discuss various factors that contribute to the multidimensional nature of pain. The future direction of the study of pain neuroscience includes a deep sampling of subjective pain experience and the use of generative models.

Over the past three decades, catatonia research has experienced a remarkable renaissance, driven by the application of diverse methodologies and conceptual frameworks. This renewed interest has significantly reshaped our understanding of catatonia, a complex syndrome with multifactorial origins spanning epidemiology, historical context, phenomenology, genetics, immunology, and neurobiology. These advancements have offered a more comprehensive and nuanced perspective, culminating in the recognition of catatonia as a distinct diagnosis in the ICD-11 – a landmark development that underscores its clinical and scientific relevance. Despite these strides, several unresolved issues remain that require future research. Bridging these gaps is crucial not only to enhance our understanding of catatonia but also to identify the most effective treatments and uncover the mechanisms underlying their efficacy. Such advancements hold the promise of developing improved diagnostic markers and tailored therapeutic strategies, offering significant benefits to patients affected by this challenging condition. In this chapter, we explore the profound implications of catatonia research, spanning its impact on clinical psychiatry and neuroscience, as well as its broader contributions to our understanding of the intricate relationship between the brain and mind.

A growing literature examines the relationship between compassion and various aspects of nervous system function, especially the brain. The chapter starts by outlining neuroimaging studies of compassion and then examines the topic of empathy and the brain, noting evidence that observing another person’s emotional state activates parts of the neuronal network that are also involved in processing that same state in oneself. Research suggests that multiple areas within the brain are involved in compassion and compassion training, with some regions more strongly implicated than others. Finally, relevant conclusions are presented and potential directions for future work outlined. Overall, research into the neuroscience of compassion supports the idea that compassion can be cultivated deliberately through training. There is evidence that activities such as compassion training and meditation can increase positive affect, boost resilience, facilitate altruistic behaviour, and possibly even assist with equanimity. These ideas are underpinned by growing neuroscientific evidence of impact on the brain. These valuable findings underscore the importance of developing compassion as a skill and fundamental attribute for healthcare workers across all settings.

This chapter covers the broad topics of neurophysiology. This includes the anatomy and physiology of the brain, in particular the cerebral arterial and venous circulations, cerebral spinal fluid production and function and the clinical relevance in neurocritical care. There is additional focus on the nerve axon, spinal cord and spinal cord reflex arcs.

In times past, an inquisitive physician-scientist must have pondered these questions: How do we unknowingly breathe? What brain structures control our breathing? Why is breathing so perfectly rhythmic? Is there a lung-brain communication, and if so, how? But an even more fundamental question must have been: how much brain injury can one sustain before breathing stops?

It took two centuries (more or less) to answer the above-mentioned questions and gradually add small pieces to a large (still incomplete) puzzle. The respiratory center in the brainstem was identified and characterized in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Similarly, the function of the respiratory muscles and its neural connection with cranial nerves (CN) became better known.

This chapter recounts the history of the neurology of breathing and, thus, the discovery of the respiratory center and the respiratory mechanics. Sections of the chapter review experimental and clinical discoveries of those parts of the central and the peripheral nervous system involved with breathing while acknowledging their interplay.

This chapter comes in two related but distinct parts. The first presents general trends in the neurosciences and considers how these impact upon psychiatry as a clinical science. The second picks up a recent and important development in neuroscience which seeks to explain mental functions such as perception and has been profitably extended into explanations of psychopathology. The second part can be viewed as a working example of the first’s overarching themes.

Accounts of genetic findings involve concepts which can prove challenging. Terminology may be unfamiliar, and some words have specialised meanings and may not always be used consistently. This chapter aims to provide an overview of the key concepts. The subject matter is intrinsically dense and can be hard to take in, so the reader may wish to skim parts of this section and then refer back to it when necessary.

This chapter provides a brief review of basic neuroanatomy, followed by a more detailed description of structures and pathways important for neuropsychiatric practice. The focus will be on the limbic brain and the functional anatomy of emotion, memory, cognition and behaviour. A more comprehensive review of general neuroanatomy can be found in standard textbooks such as Johns, Clinical Neuroscience.