This chapter examines the diverse groups of Eastern Europe in Late Antiquity, emphasising their interactions with Rome and Byzantium rather than viewing them as isolated. It focuses on groups such as the Goths, Huns, Gepids, Bulgars and Avars, analysing their political structures, military tactics and economies. Using archaeological evidence – settlements, burials and trade artefacts – alongside historical sources like Jordanes, Procopius and Ammianus Marcellinus, the chapter explores Gothic migration through the Wielbark and Černjachov cultures and the role of the Huns in reshaping power dynamics. Roman influence is evident in diplomacy, material culture and religion, particularly through Ulfila’s missionary work among the Goths. Rather than framing ‘barbarian invasions’ as simple military conquests, the study highlights complex cultural exchanges and the gradual integration of these societies into the post-Roman world. It argues that Eastern European groups were active agents in shaping medieval Europe rather than mere recipients of Roman influence. Migration, identity and power are shown to be fluid, challenging traditional narratives.

In Chapter 5, Lucian (c. second century CE) presents a complicated model of difference that relies unevenly on skin color, attire, and language as determinants of identity. His trio of Scythian satires features characters who rework the relationships between race and identity within their specific contexts. The categories of “Greek” and “foreigner” become muddled as Greeks and Scythians share their impressions about black people in their midst: Greeks conflate blackness with Aithiopians or liken it to their own appearance with ease, while one Scythian man marvels at the sight of black Athenian athletes. These varied observations lead to a collective questioning of blackness in relation to Greek identity under the guise of humor.