To assess household availability of NOVA food groups in nineteen European countries and to analyse the association between availability of ultra-processed foods and prevalence of obesity.

Ecological, cross-sectional study.

Europe.

Estimates of ultra-processed foods calculated from national household budget surveys conducted between 1991 and 2008. Estimates of obesity prevalence obtained from national surveys undertaken near the budget survey time.

Across the nineteen countries, median average household availability amounted to 33·9 % of total purchased dietary energy for unprocessed or minimally processed foods, 20·3 % for processed culinary ingredients, 19·6 % for processed foods and 26·4 % for ultra-processed foods. The average household availability of ultra-processed foods ranged from 10·2 % in Portugal and 13·4 % in Italy to 46·2 % in Germany and 50·4 % in the UK. A significant positive association was found between national household availability of ultra-processed foods and national prevalence of obesity among adults. After adjustment for national income, prevalence of physical inactivity, prevalence of smoking, measured or self-reported prevalence of obesity, and time lag between estimates on household food availability and obesity, each percentage point increase in the household availability of ultra-processed foods resulted in an increase of 0·25 percentage points in obesity prevalence.

The study contributes to a growing literature showing that the consumption of ultra-processed foods is associated with an increased risk of diet-related non-communicable diseases. Its findings reinforce the need for public policies and actions that promote consumption of unprocessed or minimally processed foods and make ultra-processed foods less available and affordable.

To evaluate time trends in the availability of soft drinks, to identify food choices associated with their consumption and to assess the relationship between socio-economic status and daily soft drink availability in a wide range of European countries.

Data on food and beverage availability collected through the national household budget surveys and harmonized in the DAFNE (Data Food Networking) project were used. Averages and variability of soft drink availability were estimated and tests for time trends were performed. The daily availability of food groups which appear to be correlated with that of soft drinks was further estimated. Multivariate logistic and linear regression models were applied to evaluate the association between socio-economic status and the acquisition of soft drinks.

Twenty-four European countries.

Nationally representative samples of households.

The availability of soft drinks is steadily and significantly increasing. Households in West and North Europe reported higher daily availability of soft drinks in comparison to other European regions. Soft drinks were also found to be correlated with lower availability of plant foods and milk and higher availability of meat and sugar products. Lower socio-economic status was associated with more frequent and higher availability of soft drinks in the household.

Data collected in national samples of twenty-four European countries showed disparities in soft drink availability among socio-economic strata and European regions. The correlation of soft drinks with unfavourable dietary choices has public health implications, particularly among children and adolescents.

Comparison of household and individual food consumption.

Combined household and individual food consumption survey carried out in Sweden in 1989. A random sample of 3000 subjects aged 0−74 years, the household to which the subject belonged constituted the household unit. Each household recorded all the foods it purchased over a 4-week period, except food eaten outside the home. For the selected subject, excluding children <1 year old, food intake was obtained with a simplified 7-day record. Food consumption from the two data sets was compared for the whole sample and for one-person households, respectively.

Reasonable agreement (±20%) was seen for many major foods including cereal products, milk, cheese, meat and meat products, and fish, and after correction for inedible part, fruit and vegetables. Purchases were lower for sweet bakery products, alcoholic beverages and potatoes, while the opposite was seen for oils and fats, cream and sugar. For one-person households the two data sets showed similar differences in consumption patterns between men and women. The gross differences observed can be explained by factors like home baking, eating out and recorded level of processing, e.g. as raw food including inedible part or as a prepared dish.

The results show reasonable agreement between purchased and eaten amounts for aggregated food groups but marked differences were seen for some important individual items. Household-based consumption data are useful for many purposes provided the limitations of the data are accounted for.

To compare individualised household budget survey (HBS) data with food consumption values derived from individual nutrition surveys (INSs).

Four European countries: Belgium, 1980–85 and 1987–88; Greece, 1993–94; Norway, 1992–94; and the United Kingdom, 1985–88.

Household budget survey data were individualised with non-parametric models. Individual nutrition survey data were converted into ‘HBS-like’ estimates, with the application of recipe-based calculations and yield factors for weight changes during food preparation. To correct for over- and underreporting or recording in both surveys, quantities (in g day−1) of 14 principal food groups were expressed as fractions of total food quantity (in g day−1). For each food group, INS and HBS-derived mean values were calculated for 24 research units, jointly defined by country (four countries involved), gender (male, female) and age (younger, middle-aged and older). Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated and correlation diagrams were drawn.

The results of this preliminary analysis show that there is value in the nutritional information derived from HBSs. However, additional and more sophisticated work is required, in order to derive reliable point and interval estimates of individual food consumption based on HBS data.

To provide an overview of the Household Food Consumption and Anthropometric Survey, undertaken in Poland from September to November 2000.

A sub-sample of households participating in the countrywide, representative household budget survey (HBS) was selected to participate in the Household Food Consumption and Anthropometric Survey. Four thousand two hundred (4200) individuals provided 24-hour recalls that were subsequently evaluated. Body weight and height together with the mid-arm, waist and hip circumferences were measured. Laboratory analyses of contaminants that may be present in selected individual diets will be undertaken.

Poland, 2000.

Four thousand two hundred individuals from 1362 households participating in the Polish HBS.

Preliminary analyses of height and weight, as well as energy and nutrient intakes, were undertaken in a sub-sample of 484 boys and girls aged 10–15 years. Energy intakes were generally in line with or above the Polish Recommendations.

Apart from serving as an important information source on individual food consumption and anthropometric status of the Polish population, the data collected through the Household Food Consumption and Anthropometric Survey will allow direct comparisons of food intake estimates, based on 24-hour recalls, with the results of the household budget survey. Such comparisons are expected to improve and refine interpretation of the data derived from both the individual nutrition survey and the household budget survey, and particularly to provide information on the importance of eating out, which is not covered in the Polish HBS.

The DAta Food NEtworking (DAFNE) initiative was conceived in the 1980s and aims at using data already collected in the context of household budget surveys (HBSs) for the assessment of dietary patterns across Europe.

HBSs are country-representative surveys conducted, with similar methodology, at regular time intervals by the National Statistical Offices of almost all European countries. DAFNE focuses at the designation of comparable, between European countries, categories of food and socio-demographic data, and the estimation of daily per capita food availability. With food and socio-demographic data classified into common categories, comparisons of food habits between European countries become possible.

Fifteen European countries with one or more HBS all undertaken during the period 1981–1999.

Representative population samples in 15 European countries.

DAFNE HBS data are comparable and allow a wide range of dietary analyses. Preliminary data document differences in food habits among European countries and provide insights into the socio-demographic determinants of food preferences.

The DAFNE databank, if properly expanded and exploited, could become a valuable tool for national food and nutrition policy planning across Europe and for the identification of groups at higher risk for developing nutrition-related conditions.

To describe the methodology applied in order to render comparable, at the level of the dietary information collected, the household budget survey (HBS) and individual nutrition survey (INS) data from four European countries (Belgium, Greece, Norway and the United Kingdom).

In Belgium, data from the HBS of 1987–88 were compared with data from the Belgian Interuniversity Research on Nutrition and Health collected from 1980 to 1985. In Greece, data from the HBS undertaken in 1993–94 in the greater Athens area were compared with data collected around 1994 in the same region, in the context of the Greek segment of the European Prospective Investigation on Cancer and Nutrition study. In Norway, data from the HBS carried out in 1992, 1993 and 1994 were compared with the NORKOST study conducted in 1993–94. In the United Kingdom, data from four HBSs carried out in 1985, 1986, 1987 and 1988 were compared with the National Dietary and Nutritional Survey of British adults conducted in 1987–88.

INS-generated data were converted into ‘HBS-like’ estimates with the application of yield factors for weight changes during cooking, recipe-based calculations and edible proportion coefficients taking into account weight changes during the food preparation. The ‘HBS-like’ estimates thus obtained were compared with the original HBS values, after applying an adjustment factor for food spoiled or given to pets.

The methodological considerations overviewed in the present paper indicate that a number of issues need to be taken into account before a proper comparison of the dietary data collected through surveys implemented with varied methodologies is carried out.

To identify, quantify and depict variation of food habits in Europe, using data from the DAFNE (DAta Food NEtworking) databank.

Household budget survey data of 12 European countries, namely Belgium, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom, around 1990.

Data from the DAFNE databank are presented in simple pictorial presentations, which reveal considerable disparities in food habits. Furthermore, there appears to be nutritional variation within countries by socio-demographic groups, defined by their residence and educational level. The distribution patterns of food availability provide insights into the determinants of food preferences, as conditioned by current forces.

The factors influencing consumer choice are many and varied. Thus, in order to promote healthy eating, it is essential to identify the food habits of the target population. In this context, information derived from household budget surveys, used in the development of the DAFNE databank, could be very important.

To describe a cost-efficient method for estimating energy and nutrient availability using household budget survey (HBS) data.

Four different approaches were tested and the results were compared with published nutrient intake data. The selected method was exemplarily applied in German and Greek data.

Germany, 1998; Greece, 1998/99.

Nationally representative HBSs.

Comparisons showed that HBS-based estimates were generally close to intake data when results were presented as contributions to daily energy intake. Daily energy and protein availabilities were similar in Germany and Greece. Differences were observed in the availability of carbohydrates (German households reported a 5 percentage points higher contribution to daily energy availability) and lipids (Greek households recorded higher values for total fat, but lower values for saturated fat). Meat, added lipids and potatoes were important energy suppliers in Germany, whereas in Greece the first three energy suppliers were added lipids, cereals and meat. In both countries, meat, cereals, milk and cheese were important protein sources and cereals, potatoes, fruits and nuts contributed more than 60% of the daily carbohydrate availability. Added lipids were the major source of fat in the daily diet of both countries, but their contribution amounted to less than one-third in Germany and two-thirds in Greece.

National HBS data can be used for monitoring and comparing nutrient availability among representative population samples of different countries. The ground is set for the development of a harmonised food composition table to be applied to HBS food data at international level.

Household budget surveys (HBSs) have been used to assess nutritional information for epidemiological purposes. The agreement between this information and other comparable data needs to be examined. The aim of this project was to compare household food expenditure data between two British HBSs: the National Food Survey (NFS) and the Family Expenditure Survey (FES).

Household food expenditure data were compared between the NFS and the FES for the years from 1982 to 1993. Differences in expenditure were assessed by year, by household composition, by income group and by region; for trends across time for all households and for regional, household composition and income group variations.

Great Britain.

Approximately 88 000 NFS households and 85 000 FES households surveyed between 1982 and 1993 were used in this analysis.

Marked differences between the food expenditure data provided by the two surveys were observed. Furthermore, differences in time trends were substantial, which can lead to different conclusions regarding changes in consumption patterns.

There is no obvious reason for the differences in household food expenditure between the NFS and the FES. Methodological differences between the two surveys cannot provide a full explanation for these discrepancies. The NFS and FES are now merged into a single survey (the Expenditure and Food Survey). If HBSs are to be used for epidemiological purposes their validity needs to be established.

To examine the hypothesis that there is sufficient agreement between percentage of households purchasing selected foods using household budget surveys and percentage of individuals consuming these foods as determined in individual-based surveys to allow the former to act as a surrogate for the latter when estimating food chemical intakes using household budget data.

Database study.

Databases from Sweden, The Netherlands, Ireland and the UK.

319 foods (Sweden n=60, The Netherlands n=80, Ireland n=90, UK n=89).

Pearson correlations demonstrated a high degree of linear association between % households purchasing and % consumers (r=0.86). Regression analysis defined a close positive relationship between the two datasets (slope 0.95, intercept +2.74). Across countries, using the regression equation, the % households predicted % consumers to within 5% of the true value for between 33 and 48% of foods and to within 10% for between 53 and 78% of foods.

Values for % households can be used as a crude surrogate for % consumers and can thus play a role in improving estimates of food additive intake.