This chapter examines the universal system for the protection of human rights, focusing on the permanent organs of the United Nations (UN) and specialized human rights bodies. It explores the roles and functions of these organs, including the General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, International Court of Justice, and the Secretary-General, as well as various human rights treaty bodies and special procedures. The chapter discusses the challenges and opportunities in the universal human rights system, highlighting the importance of international cooperation and the role of UN mechanisms in promoting and protecting human rights worldwide.

This title explores the institutional framework for the international protection of human rights, focusing on the various organizations, bodies, and mechanisms that play a role in monitoring, promoting, and enforcing human rights standards. It covers the universal human rights system established by the United Nations, including the roles and functions of the General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, International Court of Justice, and specialized human rights bodies such as the Human Rights Council and treaty-based bodies. The section also examines the regional human rights systems in Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia-Pacific, and the Arab-Muslim world, highlighting the specific institutions and mechanisms established by these regions to protect human rights. By providing a comprehensive overview of the institutional architecture, this title aims to illustrate the complexity and diversity of the international human rights protection system and the importance of coordinated efforts among different actors to address human rights violations effectively.

We present an overview of the evolution of the United Nations General Assembly, its most important achievements and remaining weaknesses and relevance. It is argued that the UN Charter should be amended to introduce a system of weighted voting, to better reflect the relative significance and influence of its 193 members. A proposal is put forward that uses three variables to arrive at a set of weights for membership in the General Assembly: (i) population size, to reflect each member’s accumulated demographic history so that countries with larger populations will have a larger voice; (ii) the size of the member’s economy; and (iii) a UN membership factor that is equal for all countries. For the GDP variable, the weighted average of GDP at market prices and GDP at PPP rates is used. The merits and limitations of such a scheme are analyzed and a gradual system of direct election of Assembly members is proposed. The chapter also presents the UN Charter’s Articles 9–11 on General Assembly composition, functions and powers and discusses how these Articles should be amended to reflect the new system of weighted voting and the enhanced powers that are envisaged for the Assembly under a revised Charter.