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For over half a century, discussion of the relationship between military finance, organisation, and state development has been dominated by the contested concept of a ‘military revolution’; the belief that there were one or a few periods of fundamental change that transformed both war and wider European history. More recently, this has been supplemented by the idea of smaller, but more frequent ‘revolutions in military affairs’ (RMAs) as individual military organisations respond to, or anticipate, changes made by their likely opponents. Technology is generally considered to drive both forms of ‘revolution’, as innovative weaponry and institutional practice transform war, rendering older models ineffective and obsolete. Change flows through a series of chain reactions, as states adapt to new conditions, modifying their structures to sustain and direct altered armed forces, and revising their forms of interaction with society both to extract the necessary resources and to legitimate their use in war-making.
This chapter deals with cash (banknotes and coins), the oldest and most traditional form of money in existence. Cash involves a paradox: On the one hand, it is technologically less advanced that modern means of payments like cards and apps, so one could presume that it should decline in use and eventually disappear. On the other, however, evidence for almost the whole world shows that the demand for cash is increasing, although it is used less frequently for certain types of transactions like online commerce, retail stores, and restaurants. Criminal activities may explain part of the puzzle, but not much. One advantage of cash is that it can be seen and touched, therefore appealing to the senses and conveying a sense of security. Another is that it ensures absolute privacy of transactions. Other important characteristics explaining the popularity of cash are that it is simple (it requires no technology or complication whatsoever); definitive (it instantly settles any financial obligation); private and personal (it appeals to the desire of confidentiality); and self-sufficient (it does not depend on any other infrastructure functioning). We conclude therefore that physical cash is a useful complement of a robust and diversified monetary system, in which digital means of payments gradually prevail.
This chapter explores the intervention of the late-18th century Ottoman jurist Kadizâda Mehmed Tâhir in a longstanding controversy: the legitimacy of istibdāl (the exchange of an endowed property for cash, or for another property). This mechanism was recognised as valid by the Ḥanbalī school of law, somewhat exceptionally. Istibdāl was an important means of reviving defunct endowments (sing. waqf) whose properties no longer generated the income necessary to support the charitable causes they had been devoted to, as well as a means of ensuring the continued circulation of property in society. Kadizâda Mehmed Tâhir argued in favour of the legitimacy of this mechanism and sought to uphold the decision of a Cairene deputy judge of the Ḥanbalī school who permitted istibdāl in a case where the endowment deed (waqfiyya) explicitly precluded its use.
Recent years have witnessed other significant changes. For example, cash is used less and less while good manners seem to have increasingly characterized past behavior. Spending of individuals and families seem to come more and more in fixed amounts. The law of demand seems to play less of a role, while the overall budget has become more important. This means that tightening the belt can play less of a role when economic conditions worsen during recessions and inflations. The value of economic exchange now depends much more on the information contained in the exchange than on the value of the labor and material of what is exchanged. This may have implications for the welfare as distinguished from the economic value of the exchange. More recently the scarcity of rare materials and of difficult to produce inputs (such as micro transistors) may have become more important.
Psychosis are complex disorders due to their symptomatic and evolutionary heterogeneity. The genetic-environmental interaction model is the most accepted etiopathogenic model, in which neurobiological processes (genetic factors, connectivity and brain structure) and environmental factors (for example: childhood trauma) are studied. The association between suffering traumatic events in childhood and the subsequent development of a Mental Disorder is of increasing interest.
Objectives
Analyze if a childhood trauma is a modulating factor of psychotic symptoms in patients with Mental Disorder. Analyze the implication of childhood trauma in long-term functionality.
Methods
The sample is made up of 37 patients with psychosis and their healthy brothers. Different sociodemographic, clinical and evolutionary variables were collected in all groups. The sample was evaluated using the semi-structured interview CASH, the WHODAS scale and the self-applied questionnaire CTQ.
Results
We did not find significant differences between the scores of CTQ between patients with psychosis and their healthy brothers. Sexual abuse is significantly correlated with the presence of hallucinations, inappropriate affect, formal thought disorders and catatonic symptoms. Emotional neglect is significantly correlated with the presence of hallucinations, inappropriate affect, affective blunting, and anhedonia. Physical neglect is significantly correlated with flattery and blunt affection. Sexual abuse is correlated with poorer personal care. Emotional neglect is correlated with poorer personal care, poorer family functioning, and worse overall functioning in the last year.
Conclusions
The intensity of traumatic experiences throughout childhood could be considered a modulating factor of psychotic symptoms (positive, negative, disorganized and catatonic) and overall functioning (occupational, family, social and personal care).