Index

Chenggang Xu

doi:10.1017/9781108894708.016

Index

500-Day Reform Program, the, of the USSR, 693–694

1905 revolution, the, of Russia, 12, 71, 160

7,000 Cadres Conference, the, of the CCP, 569

absolute monarchy, the, 54, 258

admonishers (jiang guan), 157

admonishment system, the (jian-guan zhi 谏官制), 157

agricultural reform, the, of China, 602

Alexander I, 279, 292, 310

Alexander II, 294, 297–298, 301–302

Alexander III, 298, 302

All-Russian Constituent Assembly, the, 320, 354

Anabaptists, the, 209–213, 240, 439

Andropov, Yuri, 691, 704, 717, 722

Anti-Bolshevik (AB) League Movement, the, 482–486, 489, 519, 567, 719

Anti-Bourgeois Liberalization Campaign, the, 610, 710

anti-concealment campaign, the, 565

Anti-Hu Feng Campaign, the, 544–545, 547

Anti-Japanese United Front, the, 501

Anti-Rightist Movement (ARM), the, 28, 35, 485, 487, 491–492, 515, 544–553, 568, 599, 605, 610–611, 709, 716

Anti-Spiritual Pollution Campaign, the, 608–609

April 3rd Decision, the, of the CCP, 491

April 26 editorial, the, of the People’s Daily, 612

Aquinas, Thomas, 284

Ariga, Nagao, 429–430

aristocracy, 23, 79, 93, 114, 117, 130–134, 136–137, 140, 160, 165, 179, 186, 189, 216, 218, 221–223, 231, 239, 244, 277, 279, 525, 528, 673

hereditary, 113

landed, 68, 115, 126, 130, 141, 182

authoritarianism

authoritarian regime, 3, 13, 54, 69, 623, 633, 636, 676, 684, 695, 713

authoritarian rule, 9, 664, 670, 677, 683, 686, 713

evolution toward, 49, 88, 238, 623, 631, 633

of KMT, 682, 684

regionally decentralized authoritarianism (RDA), xvii, 17, 41, 49, 618–626, 631, 633

vs. constitutionalism, 49

vs. totalitarianism, 49

Babeuf, Gracchus, 16, 203–205, 213–215, 217, 221, 225, 232–237, 241–243, 245, 249, 254–255, 257, 259, 384

Babeuvism, 217, 234

backwardness advantage, 654

Baihu tongyi (白虎通义), 183

Bao Huiseng, 459, 462

Barmby, John, 203, 233, 257, 259

Bastille, the, 227, 230

Beijing, 107, 305, 409, 419, 424, 452, 457, 469–470, 520, 528–529, 578–580, 599, 611–613, 617, 640, 657, 710, 724

Bentham, Jeremy, 65, 67, 105

Berlin, 347, 352, 384

Bible, the, 257

Blanqui, Auguste, 213–215, 323

Bo Gu, 473, 490, 493–494

Bo Xilai, 493, 580, 629, 718

Bo Yibo, 493, 527, 529, 557, 580, 598

Bodin, Jean, 109, 219–220, 250

Bolsheviks, the, 12, 18, 25, 27–31, 34–35, 56–57, 160, 214, 229, 232, 234, 236, 245, 256, 261, 264–265, 287–289, 291, 294–297, 299, 303, 306–309, 311–313, 316–321, 323–330, 335–337, 340, 344–346, 348–369, 371–372, 374, 377–378, 385–387, 389–391, 429, 434, 450, 453–455, 462, 464, 471, 476, 482, 486, 490, 493–494, 497, 499–502, 509, 512, 517, 519, 536, 544, 671–672

Boxer Rebellion, the, 107, 409, 442

Boyar Duma, the, of Russia, 275–277

Brezhnev, Leonid, 630, 701–702, 709, 717

Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 1

Bukharin, Nikolai, 2, 65, 328, 331, 333, 335, 372, 379–380, 385, 387, 389, 472, 476, 490

Byzantine, 153, 160, 169, 266, 270–273, 275, 281, 283, 286–287

Cai Hesen, 405, 408, 456, 484

Cai Yuanpei, 441, 444

Calvin, John, 252, 282

Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries, the (Zhenfan yundong), 519–521

capitalist roaders, 485, 579, 581–583

Catherine the Great, 286, 300, 339

Catholic Church, the, 258

Censorate, the (yushi tai 御史台), 159

Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, of the CCP (CCDI), 653

Central Committee meeting, of the CCP, 508, 557, 569

Central Executive Committee (CEC), 362, 363, 373, 500, 502

Central Government Council, of China, 546

Central Leading Groups, of the CCP (lingdao xiaozu), 155

Central People’s Commission for Land, 514

Central Youth Committee, of the CCP, 492

Chancellor, 133, 139–140, 142–143, 154–159, 179

Chancellorship, the, 78, 154, 159–160

Changsha, 472

Charles I, 222

Chayashan, 561–562, 564, 566, 568

checks and balances, 37, 54, 132, 155–156, 158, 216, 263, 274, 281, 309, 326, 338–340, 371, 393, 398, 414, 424, 426, 440, 552, 556, 564, 587, 627–628, 686, 713

Cheka, the, 289, 368–369, 372–373, 375–376, 378, 492, 517, 533

Chen Boda, 560, 562, 568, 573

Chen Duxiu, 25, 405, 407, 454–458, 461–462, 465, 471, 475, 477, 501, 666

Chen Yi, 477, 493–494, 527

Chen Yun, 479, 497, 557, 580, 601, 603, 605, 613, 615

Chernyshevsky, Nikolay, 288, 293, 295, 298, 319–320, 322–324

Chiang Ching-kuo, 467, 677, 683–684

Chiang Kai-shek, 444–445, 464, 466–468, 470–471, 503, 514

China Democratic League (CDL), 501, 510, 545, 549–550

Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), 535–536, 538, 611

Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS), 539, 635

Chinese imperial system, the, 3, 7, 9–10, 18, 23, 25, 27, 56–57, 80, 83, 94, 105, 116–117, 119, 122–127, 129, 133–134, 137, 149, 152, 154–156, 159–160, 164, 167, 178, 181, 190, 262, 267, 280, 290, 392–393, 400–401, 409, 434, 453, 501, 555–556, 669, 718, 721

Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), 506–507, 511, 531, 545

Chinese Revolutionary Party (CRP), 428, 429

Chinese Soviet Republic, 33, 449, 477, 499, 502, 512, 522

Central Soviet Area, 482–484, 486–487, 515, 523–524

eastern Jiangxi Soviet area, 524

Fujian–Zhejiang–Jiangxi Soviet area, 524

Hailufeng Soviet area, 522, 524

Hubei–Henan–Anhui Soviet area, 522, 524

Hunan–Jiangxi Soviet area, 522, 524

Jinggang Mountains Soviet area, 477–478, 481–483, 489, 514, 516, 522, 524, 526–527, 567, 589

Luhaifeng Soviet area, 514

Northern Fujian Soviet area, 524

Northwestern Anhui Soviet area, 524

Shaanxi–Gansu–Ningxia Soviet area, 479, 503–504, 510, 522, 524, 526

Shanxi–Hebei–Chahar border area, 504

Southwestern Jiangxi Soviet area, 524

Western Fujian Soviet area, 524

Chongqing, 506

Christianity, 29–30, 32, 57, 82, 102–104, 136, 164, 166–168, 171–172, 177–178, 181, 184, 202–204, 206, 208–209, 214, 217, 224–225, 233, 242–246, 248, 253, 255, 259, 271, 273, 281–283, 288–290, 294, 384, 388, 394, 407, 437–440, 450, 453, 605, 697

Bible, 29–30, 102, 104, 167–169, 171, 177, 184, 190, 202, 206, 209, 214, 245, 248, 271, 282–284, 289, 335, 437–438

Catholic Church, 169–170, 223–224, 242, 244, 282–284, 287, 329, 384, 388, 604, 696–697

Church, the, 29, 31, 79, 82, 136, 148, 164, 166–167, 169–173, 209, 216–217, 224–225, 233, 242–246, 252, 273, 282, 284–287, 296, 329, 388, 399, 453, 605, 696–698

clerics, 221, 282–283

Eastern Orthodoxy, 270, 273, 300

Old Testament, the, 31, 102, 104, 130, 212, 248

Orthodox Church, the, 28, 30, 103, 169, 261, 266, 270–272, 274, 281, 283–287, 292, 314, 316, 329–330, 359, 450, 697

priests, 217, 229, 234, 271, 284, 286

Protestant Church, the, 170

Protestant movement, the, 605

Reformation, the, 29, 102–103, 109, 167–168, 170, 172, 177, 206–207, 209–210, 216–217, 224, 241–242, 244, 254, 261, 281–282, 285, 301, 315, 360, 394, 604, 700

Russian Orthodoxy, 6, 30, 281–282, 284, 287–288, 291, 336, 450

Chunyu Yue, 139, 179

civil law, 104, 106–107, 109, 153

civil society, 9, 51, 54, 101, 303, 415, 624–625, 635, 639, 654, 681, 686, 688, 713, 720

clan, 129–130, 141–142, 186, 193, 280, 434, 436

clan-based rule, 142

class hatred, 349, 516–518, 702

class struggle, xv, 6, 39, 41, 214, 294, 408, 501, 573–574, 577, 580–581, 590, 592, 595, 597, 601, 672, 714, 716, 722

Coase, Ronald, 3, 671

Coase theorem, the, 97

color revolutions, the, 634, 636–637, 643, 654, 670, 712

Commune-Brigade Enterprise (CBE), 586

communism, 13, 29, 38, 202–203, 205, 378, 450, 468, 550, 560, 573, 604, 658, 703

Christian communism or utopianism or utopian communism, 206–211, 217, 240–241, 254, 294, 440

coercive/forced communism vs. voluntary communism, 207–210, 212, 214, 254, 658

communist revolution, 31, 210, 214, 233, 243, 254–255, 264, 294, 303, 323, 325, 369, 376, 383–385, 387–388, 390, 405, 439, 449, 455, 457–459, 464, 502, 540, 663, 673

communist totalitarianism, xvi, 1–2, 7–8, 18, 24, 30, 32, 38, 88, 202, 213–216, 225, 234–235, 251–255, 261–264, 281, 299, 303, 315–317, 326, 383, 385, 392, 395, 404, 445, 450–451, 543–544, 553, 555–556, 570, 585, 592, 594, 599, 616, 619, 623, 630–631, 646, 658–659, 663, 665, 667, 671–675, 682, 687, 695–696, 699–705, 707, 709

concept of, 203

origins of or ideology of, 29, 202–203, 206, 233–234, 237, 383

and proletarian dictatorship or socialism, 370, 390

secular communism or secular religion or secular messianism, 6, 29, 204, 213–214, 217, 225, 232–233, 238, 240–241, 243, 245, 249, 254, 360, 383

and totalitarianism, 38, 234, 241, 294, 658, 660, 663

Communist and Workers’ Party Conference, 554

Communist Party

Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 5–10, 17–20, 25, 27–28, 33–35, 37, 39, 41–51, 53, 55, 57–58, 81, 151, 155, 180, 255, 265, 299, 332, 372, 376, 388–391, 405, 407, 420, 427, 429, 434, 437, 442, 447, 449–451, 454–457, 459–537, 539–563, 565–566, 568–572, 574–577, 579–582, 584–585, 588–590, 592–602, 604–606, 608–610, 613–617, 619–627, 629, 633–640, 642–647, 650, 653–656, 659, 666–667, 669–670, 673, 679, 682, 687, 709–713, 716–719, 721

Comintern or International Communist Party, 7, 9, 13, 31–33, 48, 206–210, 265, 335, 385–390, 392, 407, 429, 434, 436, 449–451, 453–476, 480–492, 494–503, 511, 513–514, 521–523, 525, 533, 536, 546, 552, 666–667, 669–670, 673, 696, 718, 721

Leninist principles of, 325, 328, 386, 500

of nations other than Soviet Union and China or abstract, 376, 385, 387, 696, 700, 706

Soviet Communist Party (CPSU) or Bolsheviks or Russian Communist Party (RCP), 328, 330–331, 334, 377, 456–457, 465–467, 471–472

totalitarian nature of, 6, 232, 327, 329, 480, 499, 690–691, 713–714

Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSC), 700, 701, 707

Condorcet, Marquis de, 230, 240

Confucian scholars, book-burning and live burials of, 140, 178–179

Confucianism (Rujia), 78, 83, 105–106, 128–129, 137, 139–140, 163–166, 168–171, 173–193, 195–196, 198–200, 287, 400, 438, 446, 678–679, 716, 721

Confucian classics, 140, 165, 177, 179, 182, 184, 190, 192–193, 196–197, 679

Confucian scholars, 184

Confucian teachings, 181–184

Neo-Confucianist teachings, 195

Three Principles and Five Virtues, 184, 192–193

Confucius, 168, 180, 190, 193, 400, 404, 588–589

Conspiracy of the Equals, the, 213, 234–235, 237

Constantine the Great, 82–83

Constantine XI, 272

Constantinople, 272, 281, 283

Constitution, of the CCP, 463, 622

Constitution, of the PRC, 33, 46, 49, 530, 545

Constitution, of the ROC, 9, 53, 509, 681, 682, 687

Constitution, of the US, 16, 64, 96, 371

Constitutional Democratic Party, the, of Russia, 310–313, 338, 341, 343, 366

constitutional monarchy, 447

constitutional reform, 14, 19, 50, 74, 85, 106, 160, 215–216, 220, 226, 263–264, 274, 280, 302, 304, 308–309, 316, 337, 339, 358, 404, 407–408, 410, 412–413, 415–416, 419, 421, 445, 500, 509, 677, 707

constitutionalism, xvi, 3, 7, 9–12, 14, 16–19, 24, 26–27, 43, 49–50, 53–54, 59, 62, 64, 68, 81, 84–85, 88, 92–93, 99, 101, 105–106, 108, 111, 120, 124, 134, 136, 156–157, 159–160, 216, 220, 233, 236, 238, 240, 243, 247–248, 251, 260, 263–264, 277–278, 281, 285, 290–293, 299–302, 304, 306, 308–310, 312–313, 320, 329, 337–338, 340, 344–345, 370, 392, 394–398, 400, 402–409, 411–416, 424, 427, 429, 431–433, 441, 445, 449, 452, 499–501, 503–505, 509–511, 541, 545, 632, 634–635, 669–670, 675–676, 679–684, 687–688, 695, 698, 714, 720–721

Council of People’s Commissars (CPC), 357, 360, 363, 364, 366, 372, 373

counterrevolutionaries, 373, 486, 492, 515, 518–519, 529, 533, 544, 581, 599

coup d’état, 234, 264, 279, 300, 321, 327, 339, 365, 590, 597

criminal law, 103, 106, 119, 150, 152–153, 413, 533, 552

Cultural Revolution (CR), the, of China, 7, 14, 21, 28, 37–39, 41, 45–47, 51, 55, 72, 155, 180, 214, 332, 334, 376, 390, 485, 487, 491, 498, 506, 514, 533, 542, 551, 556–557, 569–571, 575, 577–578, 580–581, 594–595, 601, 609, 630, 666–667, 702, 716, 718–719

Cultural Revolution, the, of Soviet Union, 377, 534–535, 544, 570

Cultural Revolution Group (CRG), 571, 581, 582, 583, 584

Czechoslovakia, 387, 695, 700, 703, 706–708, 710–711, 715–716

Darwin, Charles, 406

Das Kapital, 29, 257

Daxue yanyi (Expanded Interpretation of the Great Learning), 195

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the, of France, 96, 101, 227–228, 232, 234, 238

de-Maoization, 710, 716, 718

Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), 678, 684, 685, 686

Deng Xiaoping, 39, 42, 45, 379, 381, 485, 528, 549, 569, 578–579, 587, 589, 595–598, 603, 605, 608, 610, 612, 627, 634, 636, 639, 670, 692, 709–710, 718–719

Deng Zihui, 527–528

Descartes, René, 242–243, 245

de-Stalinization, 53, 701–704, 709–710, 715–716, 718

dictatorship, of the proletariat, 57, 259

Diderot, Denis, 300

Dimitrov, Georgi, 389, 488

Ding Ling, 491

disintegration, 56, 123, 147–148, 150, 165, 189, 216, 616

Dong Zhongshu, 140–141, 182

dual-track system, the, 606–607, 611

Dubček, Alexander, 700, 703, 709

Eastern bloc, the, 39, 51, 204, 594, 596, 608, 614–615, 617–619, 623, 641, 643, 647, 659, 664, 670, 692, 700, 711

education system, 173–174, 532, 534–535, 537, 578, 625

egalitarianism, 203, 206

Eighth Route Army, the. See Red Army, of the CCP

elections, 9, 12, 48, 53, 226, 230, 250, 264, 295, 299, 302, 308, 310, 312–313, 320, 333–334, 337, 341–342, 344, 346–347, 354, 358, 362, 365–366, 368–369, 401, 409, 413, 415–417, 423, 428–429, 504–505, 522, 542, 609, 623, 625, 640, 657, 681–683, 685–686, 694, 705–707

electorate, 311, 510

Emperor/Empress/King, of Imperial China

Emperor Chengzu/Yongle of Ming, 195

Emperor decree, 164

Emperor Gao Zu of Han, 181

Emperor Guangxu of Qing, 263, 401–402, 409, 412

Emperor Jing of Tang, 181

Emperor Qianlong of Qing, 679

Emperor Renzong of Yuan, 195

Emperor Shenzong of Song, 191–192

Emperor Shi Zong of Ming, 275

Emperor Taizong of Tang, 188

Emperor Taizu of Song, 190

Emperor Taizu/Hongwu of Ming, 154, 159, 198

Emperor Wang Mang of Xin, 192

Emperor Wen of Sui, 152, 186

Emperor Wen of Tang, 181

Emperor Wudi of Han, 122, 182, 721

Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei, 147, 392

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, 188

Emperor Yang of Sui, 186

Emperor Yongzheng of Qing, 155

Emperor Zhongzong of Tang, 158

emperorship, 142, 192

Empress Dowager Cixi of Qing, 409

Empress Wu Zetian of Tang, 158, 188

King Wen of Zhou, 168

King Wu of Zhou, 168

Qin Shi Huang, 37, 122, 124, 128, 134, 139–140, 145, 165, 178–180, 198, 274–275, 555–556, 721

Engels, Friedrich, 29, 203, 205–206, 210, 214, 231, 233–234, 245, 252, 288, 296, 384, 390, 696

England, 16, 64, 96, 110, 168, 170, 215, 218–219, 221, 226, 233, 244, 246, 250, 282, 291, 344, 399

Enlightenment, the, 168, 172, 220, 224–225, 230, 237–245, 247, 278–279, 285, 300–301, 394, 688, 713–714, 716

“equal-fields” system (juntian 均田), 116

Erasmus, Desiderius, 167, 282, 284

Estates-General, the, 226

European Union (EU), 11, 141, 641, 687

faith, 79, 82–83, 89, 175–176, 199, 203, 207, 209–210, 214, 217, 225, 240, 242, 248, 261, 271, 273, 287–288, 292, 296, 360, 508, 589

Falun Gong, 624

Fang Lizhi, 610

February Revolution, the, of Russia, 263–264, 344–345, 349, 385, 408, 713, 721

February 28 Incident, the, of Taiwan, 681

federation, 136, 142, 145, 367, 523

Feng Youlan, 185, 199

Feng Yuxiang, 469

Fengyang, 601

feudal system (fengjian(封建)), 89, 93, 123, 126, 130, 134–135, 137–142, 144–146, 148, 178, 218, 268, 275

first estate, the, of France, 221

Five Anti Campaign, the, of China, 532

Five-Year Plan, the, of China, 528, 538–540

Five-Year Plan, the, of Soviet Union, 379, 381–382, 560, 692

Former Soviet Union and Eastern European Countries (FSU-EE), 6, 11, 40, 42, 45, 688–719, 722

Four Cardinal Principles, the, of Deng Xiaoping, 42, 45, 57, 599–600, 604–605, 607–610, 614, 616–618, 620, 623–624, 655, 670, 716

Four Cleanups, the, of the CCP, 51, 574, 577–578, 629

Fourth Front Army, the, of the CCP. see Red Army

Fourth Red Army, the, of the CCP. see Red Army

France, 112, 162, 203, 208, 213, 215–220, 222–226, 228, 230–231, 233, 238, 242–243, 246, 248–249, 255, 257–258, 260–261, 282, 291–292, 336, 339, 346, 356, 387, 411, 605

Frederick II, 244

freedom, 2, 51, 64–65, 79, 104, 170, 177, 198, 243, 246, 249, 251, 279, 300–302, 326, 332, 336, 349–350, 363, 383, 414, 428, 504, 612, 640, 658, 676, 683–684, 686, 691, 693, 695, 699–700, 704–705, 708, 715–716

French Revolution, the, 12, 16, 96, 102, 111, 121, 203–204, 210, 213–215, 217, 219, 221–222, 225, 227, 229–232, 237–244, 247–248, 254, 258, 264, 279, 290, 292, 301, 313, 315, 326–327, 360, 369, 512, 570, 724

Friedrich, Carl, 1

Friends of the Constitution Association (FCA), 419, 420, 421, 422

Fronde rebellion, the, of France, 222

Galen (alias of V. K. Blyukher), 469

Gang of Four, the, of China, 590, 596–597

Gao Gang, 486, 522, 527–529

Gdańsk Agreement, the, 698

Gengzi Reform, the, of China, 73, 721

German Peasants’ War, 210–211, 439

Germany, 29, 66, 112, 211, 255, 282, 291, 319, 336, 351, 368, 384–385, 387, 411, 449–450, 452, 466, 663, 673, 695, 703, 708

Girondins, the, of France, 228, 230

Glorious Revolution, the, 16, 62, 64, 68, 71, 86, 96, 110–111, 168, 170, 172, 222, 226, 237–238, 243–244, 260, 338, 344, 662

God, 29–30, 32, 84, 110, 163, 170–173, 177, 203, 219, 245, 273, 286–289, 292, 302, 435, 437–439

Golden Horde, the, 267–272, 274, 435

Gomułka, Władysław, 376, 699

Gong Zizhen, 185

Goodnow, Frank, 429–432

Gorbachev, Mikhail, 53, 600, 612–613, 616, 623, 691–694, 701–706, 708–709, 712, 715, 717, 719, 723–724

governance structure, 19, 39, 60, 108, 113, 124, 130, 146, 151–152, 219, 410, 543, 554–556, 572, 674, 710, 712

Government Affairs Council (GAC), 545–546

Grace Decree (Tui-en Ling 推恩令), of Han dynasty, 182

Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich, 342

Grand Prince of Muscovy, 268–269, 272

Grand Prince of Vladimir, 268

grasping the large and letting go of the small (zhuada fangxiao), of the CCP, 621, 634

Great Famine, the, of PRC, 563–570

Great Famine, the, of Soviet Union, 381, 560

Great Leap Forward (GLF), the, of PRC, 7, 14, 17, 21, 37–39, 55, 57, 122, 152, 155, 553–557, 559–560, 562–564, 566–573, 585–586, 591, 593–596, 601, 603, 617, 643, 667, 669, 721

Great Purge, the, of Soviet Union, 51, 328, 332–334, 375, 387, 389, 487, 494, 714

Greece, 67, 91, 93–94, 96, 100, 104, 109, 111, 113–114, 123, 669

Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 10, 11, 41, 642, 647–649, 654, 655, 676, 682, 686, 689

Gu Zuolin, 484

Guangfuhui (Restoration Society), 441–442, 444, 448

Guangzhou, 416, 443, 461, 466–467, 472

Guchkov, Alexander, 343

guojin mintui, (“the state sector advances, the private sector retreats”), 644

Gwangju Massacre, the, of S. Korea, 683

Gwangju Uprising, the, of S. Korea, 684

Hall of Government Affairs, the/Zhengshi tang, 156–157

Han Empire, 145, 149, 179–183

Hart, Oliver, 5, 662, 671

Hayek, Friedrich, 4–5, 55, 59, 67, 87–88, 90, 94, 96, 205, 658, 660–662

He Changgong, 477

He Jinye, 478

He Long, 478, 528

hereditary aristocracy, 56

Herzen, Alexander, 293–295, 319–320

Hobbes, Thomas, 110

Holy Roman Empire, 126, 136, 141, 210–211

Hong Fraternity, the, 448

Hong Kong, 443, 505, 515, 537, 603, 613, 638–640, 654

Hong Xiuquan, 32, 437–438, 440–441

household empire, of China, 142

Hu Jintao, 611, 627, 635, 718

Hu Qili, 611, 613

Hu Shih, 403, 407, 455–456, 458

Hu Yaobang, 45, 55, 335, 372, 497, 597–598, 601, 605–606, 608–612, 627, 656, 710, 718

Hua Guofeng, 597, 601, 603

Huang Xing, 426, 428, 441

Huang Yanpei, 504

Huaxinghui (Chinese Revival Society), 441

hukou system, of China, 649–650

human rights, 4–5, 8, 16, 60, 63–65, 69, 79–81, 96, 100, 108–109, 113–114, 119, 172, 205, 220–221, 227–228, 230, 232, 237–239, 243, 248, 301, 317, 371, 408, 599, 619, 668, 675, 677, 693–695, 698–699, 709, 714–717, 720

humanitarianism, 8, 579, 608, 694, 701, 704, 709, 712–713, 716

humanity, 203, 207, 260, 289, 323, 663, 689, 694, 701–704, 713–717, 720

Hume, David, 61, 65, 660

Hunan New People’s Society, 458

Hundred Days’ Reform, the/ Wuxu Reform, 14, 25–26, 73, 108, 174, 185, 191, 280, 398–403, 408, 410, 721

Hundred Schools of Thought, 547, 550

Hungarian revolution, the, of 1956, 35, 699, 702

Hungary, 267, 376, 387, 547–548, 695, 699, 702–703, 706–711, 715–716

Huxley, Thomas, 404–405, 447

Imperial China, 12, 18, 22, 33, 68, 99, 107, 112–113, 174, 186, 262, 270, 277, 394, 515, 544, 576, 592, 663, 676

imperial court, the, of China, 23–24, 26, 39, 117–118, 125, 139, 144, 147, 151–152, 157, 173–176, 186–187, 189, 277, 287, 395, 397, 401–402, 412, 415–416, 421, 525, 528

imperial junxian system, the, of China, 22–23, 37, 77–78, 115, 116, 124–128, 131–132, 134, 137, 139, 143, 145, 147, 151, 178–179, 181, 186, 525–526, 528, 556, 592, 721

junxian bureaucracy, 124, 127, 146–147, 149–150

imperial rule, 23–24, 26, 28, 57, 78, 118, 127, 129, 134, 136, 140, 142, 150, 160, 164, 168–169, 171, 177, 181–182, 189, 192, 199, 262, 263, 301–302, 329, 402, 415, 422, 424, 427, 440, 451, 678, 687

imperial system, the, 263, 673–674, 679

incentive mechanism, 28, 43, 86–87, 390, 563, 566, 643

incentive-compatibility, 19, 26, 36, 68–76, 78, 83, 87, 98, 660–661, 722

Incentive-incompatibility, 36

independent scholarship, 171, 173

Industrial Revolution, the, 86, 394

institutional change, xvi, 4, 9, 17, 19, 26, 37, 52–53, 56, 70, 72–78, 81–82, 85–90, 131, 137, 529, 553, 555, 557, 662, 671, 722

institutional divergence, 9–10

institutional genes

of absolutism, 219

of autocracy, 84

of Bolsheviks or of Communist Party or of totalitarian party, 30–31, 319–320, 325, 329, 336, 429, 439, 592, 666

of Chinese communist system or of totalitarian China or of RADT, 7, 18, 21, 23–27, 32, 35, 37, 39–40, 42, 487, 499, 570, 586, 615, 638, 688, 712

of Chinese imperial system or of traditional China, 7, 18–19, 23–27, 31–37, 78, 123–141, 143–166, 190, 267, 392, 398, 400, 403, 415, 424, 429–434, 451, 463, 468, 500, 512, 555, 575, 679, 688

of Christianity or Church, 82, 102, 166–171, 206, 329

concept of, 3–4, 52, 59, 76–77, 660–665, 720

of constitutionalism, 9, 41–54, 108, 318, 338, 403, 415, 417, 424, 432, 654, 665, 674–688, 702, 712–720

of Eastern European countries (FSU-CEE), 688–720

evolution of and institutional change, 4, 75–77, 81–84, 91–93, 434, 668–670, 721

of feudalism or feudal system, 137–139, 144–148, 181, 185

identification of or characteristics of, 76–79

of junxian system, 23, 526, 592

of keju system, 163–165, 177, 190, 199, 721

and legal system, 104, 132

and mechanism design or incentive-compatibility, 19, 77–79, 84–89, 297, 473, 595, 661, 665

mutation of or emerging of new, 609, 632–634, 654, 662, 665

and path dependence, 85–89, 670

and political power, 141

and property rights, 5, 84, 91–93, 101–104, 110, 114, 127, 135, 182

of Russian imperial system or of Russian Empire, 7, 27, 122, 261, 265, 270–271, 273–274, 293, 297, 299, 313, 315–316, 336–337, 339, 358–359, 363, 369, 372, 395, 450, 473, 701

of Russian Orthodoxy, 78, 270–274

of Russian secret terrorist organizations, 234, 270–274, 290–299, 474, 476

of secret society system, 440, 445, 474, 476, 483, 486

and social consensus or ideology, 79, 101, 112, 215, 537, 702, 708, 713–714

of Soviet Union, 8, 31, 53, 701–706

of Taiwan, 8, 52, 675–688

of totalitarianism, or of communism, or of communist totalitarianism, 7, 30–31, 37, 160–161, 202–204, 232, 253, 315, 382, 390, 450, 482–483, 512, 521, 630–632, 669–670, 674

institutional transformation, 8–9, 42, 52–53, 71, 88, 675–676, 678–679, 687, 695, 717, 722

institutional transition, 137, 688, 711, 717, 719

intelligentsia, the, of Russia, 16, 263, 288, 290–291, 293–298, 302, 309, 394–395, 476, 499

Ivan I, 272

Ivan III, 269, 272, 274–275, 280

Ivan IV, 269, 275–276

Jacobins, the, 16, 215, 228–230, 232–234, 240, 242, 247, 264, 298, 323, 327, 389, 482, 493

James II, 338

Japan, xix, 9, 11, 13–14, 25, 70, 86, 88, 107, 153, 262, 304–305, 395, 397–399, 401–402, 410, 412, 414, 433, 448–450, 452, 457–458, 479, 503, 516, 605, 642, 655, 676, 679–680

Jiang Qing, 514, 579, 590, 597

Jiang Zemin, 540, 611, 614–615, 621, 627, 634–635, 710, 718

Joffe, Adolf/ Yue Fei, 465

Joint State Political Directorate (OGPU), 378

judicial system, 60, 103, 135, 428, 533, 539, 551, 631, 666, 675

July Days Coup, the, of Russia, 351–352

June 4th Massacre, the (Tiananmen Square Massacre), 614–615

Justinian Code, the, of Byzantine Empire, 152

Justinian I, 273

Kaihuang Code, the, of Chinese Empire, 152

Kamenev, Lev, 332–333, 354, 466

Kang Sheng, 491–492, 494, 514, 568, 573, 579

Kang Youwei, 180, 185, 191, 199, 280, 398, 400–401, 404, 407, 421, 446

Kaohsiung Incident, the, of Taiwan, 683

Kautsky, Karl, 29, 206, 209–210, 231, 326–327, 374, 390

Kazakhstan, 381

keju (科举), the imperial examination system of China, 124, 128, 149–150, 163–165, 170–179, 183, 185–192, 194–199, 401, 410, 440

baguwen (八股文), 197–198

gongshi (贡士), 197

Grand Academy, the (taixue 太学), 173, 182–183, 186–187, 191

Hanlin, 196

Hanlin Academy, the, 196

Imperial University, the (guozi jian国子监), 173, 186–187, 196

jinshi degree, 187, 194, 196, 678

jinshi examination, 187, 191, 678

jinshi section, 187

juren degree, 197

keju examination, 128, 174–176, 191, 195

metropolitan examination, 197–198

palace examination, 150, 166, 188, 194, 197

provincial examination, 194, 197, 437

xiucai degree, 197

xiucai section, 187

Zhuangyuan, 197

Kerensky, Alexander, 304, 343, 346, 348, 351–354, 362, 367

KGB (Committee for State Security), the, 334, 372, 375, 492, 691, 719, 722

Khrushchev, Nikita, 35, 53, 333, 546–547, 554, 593, 600, 616, 689, 698, 701–702, 704, 709, 716–717

Khrushchev’s secret speech, 544–546

Kiev, 266, 271, 274

Kievan Rus’, 265–270, 272, 274, 284

KMT (Kuomintang), 9, 53, 265, 332, 388, 420, 422, 425–455, 463–476, 482, 489, 492, 500–509, 513, 515–517, 522, 526, 536, 545, 549, 667, 676–688

KMT-CCP cooperation, 475

Chongqing peace talks, 506

Kornai, János, xv, 3, 90, 607, 656, 712

Kornilov Affair, the, 351–353

Kropotkin, Peter, 288, 295

Kuai Dafu, 581

Lafayette, Marquis de, 227

Land and Freedom Society, the, 295, 322

land control system, of Imperial China, 23, 114, 124, 127

Land Reform movement, the, of China, 28, 35, 72, 513–519, 567

Lange, Oskar, 55, 59, 87, 90, 656

Lee Teng-hui, 677–678, 683–686

Legalism (Fajia), of China, 105, 132–133, 181

legalist, 178

legalist, 161

legitimacy, 2, 31, 34–35, 41, 45, 54, 61–62, 78–80, 129, 146, 164, 167, 169, 172, 176, 179, 181, 189–190, 194, 199, 226, 271–272, 283, 331, 344, 361, 364–365, 381, 437, 440, 447, 488, 490–491, 499, 510, 553, 589–590, 594–595, 597–598, 601, 604, 628, 643, 655, 687, 692, 712

Lenin, Vladimir, 16, 28, 31, 48, 81, 90, 95, 122, 204–205, 214, 225, 234, 256, 265, 288, 296–299, 303, 312, 318, 322–334, 340, 345–355, 357–359, 361–367, 369, 371–372, 374, 376–379, 381, 384–388, 391, 442, 453, 462, 464–465, 473, 489, 495, 499, 502, 504–505, 512, 531, 534, 537, 553, 570, 595, 604–605, 623, 627, 635, 644, 687, 698, 701, 705

Leninism, 2, 30–33, 46, 57, 84, 202, 204, 249, 294, 323, 331, 333, 335–336, 388, 447, 455, 458–459, 464, 474, 496, 574–577, 600, 604, 637, 696, 712

Li Da, 456

Li Dazhao, 25, 405, 408, 454–458, 467, 471, 474

Li Hongzhang, 304, 397, 399–400, 410, 437

Li Keqiang, 649, 718

Li Kui, 133–134

Li Peng, 540, 710, 718

Li Ruihuan, 610

Li Si, 134, 139–140, 179

Li Wenlin, 483–484

Li Xiannian, 557

Li Yuanchao, 580

Liang Qichao, 25, 106, 180, 199–200, 395, 400–401, 403–404, 406–407, 413, 418–419, 432–433, 446, 542, 723

Liao Ping, 185, 199

Liao Zhongkai, 25, 467, 513

Liberation War, the, of China, 517, 529

Lin Biao, 390, 527, 568, 573–574, 577, 582, 584, 588–589, 593

Lin Biao Incident, the, 588–589

Liu Bingzhong, 195

Liu Fenglu, 185

Liu Shaoqi, 2, 30, 65, 335, 372, 494–495, 504, 506, 517–519, 527, 529–531, 536, 539, 552, 560, 569, 573–574, 578–579, 581, 587, 589, 598

Liu Xiaobo, 50, 624, 632

Liu Xin, 180, 183, 185, 192, 446

Liu Zhidan, 478, 486, 522

Locke, John, 4, 15–16, 64–65, 90, 94, 96, 101, 111, 120, 172, 205, 237–238, 242, 244, 247–248, 395, 431

London Communist Propaganda Society, the, 203

Long March, the, 478, 485, 503, 515, 523

looting the rich, by the CCP, 515

Louis XIV, 218, 223, 245

Louis XVI, 226–228, 247, 339

Lu Xun, 176, 456

Luo Longji, 550

Luo Lun, 419

luring the snake out of the hole, of Mao, 548

Lushan Conference, 562, 567–568

Luther, Martin, 167–168, 252, 282, 284

Luxemburg, Rosa, 326, 390, 696

Lvov, Georgy, 343, 351

Ma Xiwu, 478–479

Mably, Abbé de, 237, 239, 241

Magna Carta, the, 168, 219, 338

Main Directorate of State Security (GUGB), of USSR, 492

Manchu, 18, 155, 159–160, 198, 406, 423, 438, 441, 444

Mao Yuanxin, 577, 593

Mao Zedong, 31–33, 46, 48, 51, 62, 128, 155, 180, 204, 381, 405, 408, 437, 458, 461, 467, 471, 473, 475, 477, 479, 482, 484, 486, 489, 494–495, 502, 504, 513, 515, 517, 519–520, 522, 527, 547, 574, 577, 584, 600–601, 627, 630, 666, 670, 716, 719, 721

Maring/Sneevliet, Henk, 460–461, 465

Marshall, George, 506–507, 509

Marx, Karl, 5, 16, 27, 29, 37, 67, 95–96, 102, 111, 113, 122, 129, 202–205, 210, 213–214, 225, 231, 233–234, 236, 239, 245, 253–255, 288–289, 294, 296, 303, 355, 360, 368–370, 374, 384–385, 389–390, 405–406, 408, 459, 555, 620, 663, 672–674, 687, 704–705

Marxism, 2, 29–33, 46, 57, 84, 112, 202–204, 209, 214, 249, 253, 255–257, 288–289, 291, 295–297, 303, 322–323, 384, 404–405, 408, 447, 450, 453, 455, 458–459, 496, 574–577, 593, 600, 604–605, 673, 701, 712

dictatorship of the proletariat, the, 2, 7, 42, 202, 205, 214, 236–237, 254–255, 290, 312, 318, 326–328, 335, 345, 348, 355, 360–361, 368–372, 374, 376, 379, 389–390, 455, 458–460, 501–504, 546, 552, 573, 595, 600, 672, 701, 708

Maskin, Eric, 90, 671

mass movement, 454, 491, 493, 519, 532, 556, 570, 578, 583

masses, the, 32, 72, 140, 206, 217, 225, 229, 236, 249, 253, 255, 322, 324, 341, 349–351, 365, 464, 474, 480, 514–520, 544, 573, 575, 578, 581, 591, 672, 714, 719

May 4 Directive, 517

mechanism design, xv–xvi, 3, 59, 68–69, 73, 75–76, 87, 660–661, 665, 671

Meiji Restoration, the, 11–12, 70, 89, 108, 397–398, 402–403, 412

Mencius, 180, 193, 196

Menxia sheng (Chancellery), of Chinese Empire, 143

Meslier, Jean, 225, 237, 239, 241, 243–245, 247, 249, 254, 259

Middle Ages, 126, 136, 205, 218, 221, 242, 316, 384, 439–440, 512, 658, 671, 695

Mikoyan, Anastas, 334

Milyukov, Pavel, 343

Ministry of Personnel, the, of Chinese Empire, 143, 151, 187

Mises, Ludwig von, 5, 75, 206, 658, 660, 671

monarchy

absolute monarchy, 10, 110, 148, 215–216, 218–220, 222, 224, 226–227, 230–231, 239, 249–250, 252, 276, 280, 286, 291, 305, 339

constitutional monarchy, 9, 12, 25–26, 81, 216, 226–228, 238, 263, 292–293, 299, 301, 306, 310–312, 337–338, 340, 344, 347, 393–395, 400–403, 405, 408–409, 412–413, 417, 419, 433, 451, 721

feudal monarchy, 102, 123, 166, 220

Mongol Empire, the, 266–270, 435

Mongols, 18, 154, 160, 195, 266–270, 273–274, 286, 305

Montesquieu, 114, 121, 129, 228, 237–238, 243, 246–248, 250, 252, 259, 270, 395, 405, 674

Morelly, Étienne-Gabriel, 237, 239, 241

Moscow, 268–269, 272, 281, 285, 342–343, 350, 355, 368, 384–387, 459–460, 465–466, 471–472, 480, 488, 490, 527, 554, 557, 560, 691, 710

Moscow Oriental University, 473

Münster, 211–212, 315, 360, 370, 439–440, 512

Müntzer, Thomas, 210–211, 257, 439

Muscovy, 266, 268–270, 272

Nanjing, 421, 423, 438, 520

Napoleon, Bonaparte, 12, 227, 232, 339

Narodnaya Volya, the/ People’s Will, the, 28–29, 297–298, 321–323, 336, 389, 666

National Assembly, the, of China (Zizheng Yuan), 413, 417

National Peasant Movement Training Institute, of China, 476

National People’s Congress, the, of China (NPC), 545, 635–636

National Revolutionary Army (NRA), the, of China, 468–469, 503

Nationalist government, the, of China, 506, 509, 678–679

Nazism, 406, 672

Nechayev, Sergey, 323–324

Neiman-Nikolsky, Vladimir, 460–461

neo-authoritarianism, or new authoritarianism, 15, 623

Netherlands, 212, 282, 299

New Cold War, 659

New Economic Policy (NEP), of Lenin, 256, 332, 595, 604, 644, 670, 711

New Fourth Army, the. See Red Army, of the CCP

New People’s Society, the, of Taiwan, 680

Newton, Isaac, 242, 244

Nicholas I, 292–293

Nicholas II, 122, 304–305, 308, 311, 329, 339–340, 342, 374

Nie Hongjun, 486

nobility, 23, 26, 56, 113, 115, 125–126, 130–131, 133–134, 136, 138–139, 141, 146–148, 150, 161, 165, 186–187, 189, 216, 218–223, 226, 228, 232, 252, 268–270, 274–277, 279–280, 294, 300–301, 309–310, 374, 696, 721

non-government organization (NGO), 41, 48, 626

North, Douglass, 3, 60, 67, 85–86, 90, 99, 660, 670

North Caucasus, 381

Northeast Army, 469, 503

Northern Wei dynasty, 116, 147, 392

Northwest Federal Government of the Soviet Republic of China, the, 523

Novgorod, 266

October Revolution, the, 2, 12, 33, 57, 72, 81, 202, 262, 264, 295–297, 315, 320, 325, 334, 345, 358–359, 361, 364–365, 381, 385, 390, 449, 454, 501–502, 504, 537, 544, 593, 659

Oprichnina, 276

Ottoman Empire, the, 88–89, 113

overlords, 117, 147, 268

Pan Fusheng, 563

papal directive, 164

Paris, 121, 222–223, 230–231, 233, 257–258, 512

party-state agencies/party-state bureaucracy, 17, 19, 155, 558, 571, 575, 581–583, 591, 631–632, 642–644, 654, 692

peaceful evolution, 42, 43, 573, 574, 634, 643, 654, 670, 682, 712

peasant mobilization, 512

Peasant Movement Committee, the, of China, 513

peasant uprising, of China, 24, 295, 513

Peking University, 456, 549, 551, 578, 611

Peng Dehuai, 335, 380, 482, 484, 493–494, 527, 567, 589

Peng Pai, 522

People’s Bank of China (PBOC), 525, 537, 542

People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs, the (NKVD), of the USSR, 332, 334, 375

People’s Commune, the, of China, 38, 214, 557, 560–566, 568–569, 574, 578, 582–583, 586, 598, 602

People’s Liberation Army, the (PLA), of China, 517, 574, 582–584, 588–589, 597, 610, 613–614

People’s Republic of China (PRC), 10, 33, 45, 493, 511, 527, 530–531, 533, 536, 539–540, 544–545, 555, 560, 572, 584, 588, 592, 598, 600, 625, 666, 675–676, 683

Perestroika, 53, 600, 691, 704, 708

personality cult, 38, 329–332, 334, 450, 481, 494, 547, 553, 571–573, 587–589, 592, 597, 627–629

personnel system, 149, 163, 165

Peter the Great, 271, 273, 275–277, 279–280, 286, 300

Petersburg, 306, 366, 391

Petition to the Throne, the (Gongche shangshu), of China, 401–402

Petrograd, 331, 342–343, 347–348, 350–356, 365–368, 391

Poland, 267, 287, 387, 547–548, 695–700, 702, 706–711, 715–716

Polish United Workers’ Party (PUWP), 376, 696–699, 706

Politburo, of the Central Committee, of the CCP, 51, 492, 557, 561, 567, 571, 577, 588

Standing Committee, 610–611, 613

Politburo, of the Central Committee, of the RCP, 333, 465, 472, 490, 694, 704

political power

centralization of, 67, 153, 281, 587

centralized, 66, 530

of the Chinese Empire or the Russian Empire, 108, 114–115, 125, 142, 165, 270, 272, 281

under constitutional rule, 71, 425

decentralization of, 141, 557, 559

decentralized, 66, 135

dispersed, 79, 84, 136, 145

and human rights, 4, 66, 79

monopolization of, 115

monopolized, 6, 31, 79, 84

and property rights, 4, 63, 65–67, 79, 84–85, 100, 108, 116, 134–136, 141, 153, 205, 214, 666

seizure of, 234–235, 354, 472, 500, 672, 680

structure of, 5, 43, 60, 66, 79, 84, 108, 597

of the totalitarian leader, 37, 62, 556, 572, 577

in a totalitarian system, xvii, 68, 71, 254, 366, 390, 472, 480, 530, 543, 572, 577–578, 587, 605, 666, 694, 719

Pope John Paul II, 697–699

Popper, Karl, 67, 259, 660, 672–673

post-Mao era, 8, 39, 552, 629

power struggles, 145, 175, 331, 361, 375, 379, 402, 481, 547, 568–569, 582, 628, 719

Poznań strike, the, of Poland, 699

Prague, 715

Prague Spring, the, 614–615, 700–702, 704, 707, 715

princelings faction, the, of China, 717

Princess Sophia Palaiologina, 272

private law, 93, 103–104, 106–109, 118, 153

privatization, 47, 117, 208, 621–622, 634, 647, 686, 693

Gaizhi, of China, 621

property rights, 60, 63–73, 79, 84, 87–88, 94–95, 119, 207, 268, 306, 419, 531, 619, 626, 630, 668, 671

abolition or deprivation of, 254, 320, 344, 359, 371, 377–378, 380, 382–383

as a bundle of rights, 5, 94–99

centralization of, 67, 153

centralized, 66, 92

and constitutionalism, 415–417, 441, 531, 682, 688, 720

as control rights, 5, 94–99

decentralization of, 141

decentralized, 66

dispersed, 71, 79, 91, 93, 99, 136, 300

as human rights or inseparable from human rights, 4, 65–66, 96, 102, 108–109, 111, 114, 119, 237, 239, 248, 394, 415, 441, 720

monopolized, 6, 79, 84, 92

private, 16, 41, 43, 49, 54, 62, 66, 79, 88, 91–93, 96–97, 99–106, 108–111, 113, 116, 119–120, 135, 153, 205, 232–233, 235, 248–249, 278, 300, 385, 415, 531, 622–623, 632, 639, 654, 656, 674–676, 682, 688, 692, 720

and sovereignty, 10, 108–119, 251–252, 275, 278

state control over, 19, 512, 532, 537, 565

structure of, 5, 31, 67, 71, 79, 84–85, 88, 91–92, 141, 209

in a totalitarian system, 71

Provincial Advisory Councils, of China (Ziyi Ju), 412–415, 417, 419

Prussia, 244

Pu Dianjun, 419–420

public law, 93, 103–105, 107, 109, 119, 153

Qin Empire, 62, 125, 133, 136, 139, 149, 168, 179, 392

Qin Ji (Annals of Qin), 140

Qing dynasty, 53, 71, 107–108, 119, 151, 154–155, 160, 173, 176, 197–199, 393, 396, 407, 409–410, 413, 415, 421, 426, 435, 444, 474, 500, 525, 528, 679

Qing Empire, the, 10–11, 25, 107, 304, 409–410, 419, 421, 436–437, 440, 445, 525

Qu Qiubai, 471–472, 475, 484

Railway Protection Movement, the (RPM), of China, 419–420, 422

Rasputin, Grigori, 342

Red Army, of the CCP, 81, 477–485, 488, 503, 515, 523

Red Guard movement, the, of China, 579, 582

Red Guards, the, 38, 369, 514, 571, 575, 577–581, 584, 718

Red Regime, the, 482

Red Terror, the, 7, 368–370, 373–376, 387, 389, 482, 487, 491, 493–494, 514, 579–580

reform and opening-up, of China, 45, 119, 202, 379, 539, 570, 624, 627

regional competition, of China, 38, 40, 43–44, 558–564, 573, 582, 603, 617, 643

regional experiment, of China, 38, 559–560, 573, 603, 620

regionally administered totalitarianism (RADT) or totalitarianism with Chinese characteristics, 8, 14, 16–27, 37–42, 44, 123, 152, 543, 630, 638, 642, 653, 667, 670, 710, 712

and classic totalitarianism, 39, 41, 123, 543, 620, 630, 667

feature of, 17

and the Great Leap Forward or the Cultural Revolution, 17, 152, 553–575, 585–592, 667, 670

institutional genes of, 37–42

and the post-Mao reform, 595, 604, 617, 620, 630, 642, 648, 653, 670, 710

and regional competition/experiment, 40–44, 558–572, 642

and regionally decentralized authoritarianism (RDA), 17, 41, 49, 618–626

Reign of Terror, the, 29, 229, 251, 370, 374

Ren Bishi, 484, 490, 495, 523

Renaissance, the, 168, 285, 300–301, 394

Renmin University of China (RUC), 538–539

Renminbi (RMB), 525, 626, 649, 653

reorganization of the KMT, the, 463, 465, 467, 513

A Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan, 513

Republican Revolution, the, of 1911/Xinhai Revolution, the, 14, 73, 81, 263, 409, 413, 419, 421–422, 428, 443, 721

republicanism, 13, 160, 230, 432

Resolution of the Gutian Congress, of the CCP, 480

revisionism, 573–576, 596, 709, 716

Revolutionary Committee, the, of China, 214, 350, 355–356, 363–364, 582, 584

Revolutionary Rebel Faction (Rebel Faction), the, of China, 429, 581–584

rightists, the, of China, 180, 521, 549–552, 596, 599

Rites of the Zhou, 184, 438

Robespierre, Maximilien, 214–215, 220, 225, 229–230, 232, 234, 237, 243, 247, 374

Roh Tae-woo, 684

Roman Empire, 30, 82–83, 102–104, 109, 123, 135, 164, 167–169, 178, 181, 184, 209, 273, 283, 285, 384

Roman law, 96, 103–105, 120, 135, 153, 273–274

Roman Republic, 103–105, 109, 123, 135–136

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 16, 111–112, 121, 204, 220, 224–225, 228, 234, 237–239, 243–244, 247–252, 257, 260, 298, 395, 431

royal household, 142

Ruijin, 477, 503

rule by law, 106

rule of law, the, 43, 51, 65, 89, 91–93, 97–98, 103, 105, 172, 402, 431, 551, 632, 634–635, 639, 661, 720

Rurik, 266

Rus’ system, 275

Russell, Bertrand, 251, 456

Russian Communist Party (RCP), 328, 330, 331, 334, 335, 377, 378, 386, 456, 457, 465–467, 471, 472

Russian Social Democratic Labor Party, the, 28, 296, 318–319, 321, 336

Sangang Wuchang, 184, 192

sans-culottes, the, of France, 230–231, 258, 723

Sarai, 267, 269

Second Red Army, the, of the CCP, 478

Second World War, 5, 15, 33, 53, 388–389, 495, 506, 516, 641, 659, 679, 687, 700

secret society, the, of China, 420, 429, 442, 444, 476–480

Big Swords Society, 442

Brotherhood Society, the, 32, 420, 441–442, 474–480

Green Gang, 32, 475

Heaven and Earth Society, 32, 436, 679

Hong Fraternity, 442–444, 451, 474, 477, 480

Red Spear Society, 474–475, 480, 513

Society of God Worshippers, 435, 576

Triad Society, 438, 441–442, 475

White Lotus, 32, 434–435, 442, 474, 576

secular religion, the, 29, 204, 225, 360, 383

secular religious movements, 671–672, 674

separation of Church and state, 167–168, 170–171

separation of powers, the, 110, 112, 219, 227, 238, 247–248, 414, 636

serfdom, 88, 117, 274, 276, 278, 292, 294–295, 307, 658

SEZ, the, of China, 603, 617, 656

Shaanxi–Gansu–Ningxia, 542

Shakhnazarov, Georgy, 715

Shang Yang, 115, 134, 147

Shang Yang’s reform, 134

Shanghai, 457, 460–461, 469–471, 520, 557, 582, 590, 613–614

Shangshu sheng (Department of State), of Chineses Empire, 143

Shao Yichen, 185

Shatalin, Stanislav, 693

Shen Dingyi, 466

Shi ji (史记)(Record of the Grand Historian), 140

Short Course, The History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks), 31, 335, 490

Siberia, 267, 301, 337, 380–381

Sieyès, 227

Sima Guang, 183–184, 200

Sima Qian, 140

Shi jizhu (Collected Commentaries on the Four Books), 195

Smith, Adam, 61, 89, 99, 120, 214, 243, 256, 660–661

special economic zone (SEZ), of China, 602, 603, 605, 617, 618, 622, 655, 656

social consensus, 5–6, 8, 31, 60–62, 69, 78–80, 84–85, 99–101, 117, 661, 689, 694, 696, 698, 700, 702, 708, 713–716, 720

Social Darwinism, 403–408, 447, 452, 459

social elite, 53, 69, 80, 137–138, 165, 176, 255, 338, 341, 425, 474, 685, 689, 692–694, 715

socialist democracy or socialism with a human face, 713

Russian Communist Party (RCP), 328, 330, 331, 334, 335, 377, 378, 386, 456, 457, 465–467, 471, 472

soft budget constraint (SBC), 88, 607, 611, 622, 647–648, 652–653, 690, 712

Solidarity movement, the, of Poland, 608

Son of Heaven, the, 131, 141, 168, 171, 173, 175, 181, 184, 194

Song dynasty, 23, 98, 116–118, 124, 128, 145, 150, 154, 158–159, 165, 179, 190–192, 194–195, 197, 199, 392, 434, 451, 474, 525

Song Jiaoren, 427–428, 445

Song Ziwen, 513

South Korea, 11, 71, 86, 659, 683–684

Soviet Red Army, the, 3, 334, 369, 387, 466, 469, 476, 508, 695

Sovietization, 16, 528, 530, 538, 555, 559

Special Economic Zone (SEZ), of China, 603, 617, 656

Spencer, Herbert, 404, 406

Spinoza, Baruch, 65, 90, 247

Stalin, Joseph, 30, 33, 51, 204, 225, 275, 289, 328, 330–335, 346, 357, 359, 372, 375–376, 379–381, 387–388, 389, 391, 465, 469, 471, 487–490, 492, 494–495, 498, 503, 506, 508, 516, 530–531, 536, 541–542, 546, 553, 565–566, 593, 600, 627–628, 700–703, 709, 714–715, 717

State Admnistration for Market Regulation (SAMR), 546

State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission (SASAC), 47, 634

State Council, of China, 151, 310, 537, 546, 557, 567

State Duma Election Law, 308

state ownership, 7, 19, 42, 55, 65, 88, 95, 99, 119, 124, 376, 378–379, 439, 605–607, 611, 630–631, 647, 690, 692, 712

State Planning Commission, of China, 529, 537–558

State Planning Committee (Gosplan), of USSR, 378

State Political Directorate, the, of Soviet secret police (GPU), 332

state power, 113, 173, 389, 580, 636

state religion, 30, 82–83, 102, 164, 166–168, 171, 178, 180–181, 184, 193, 209, 271, 281–284, 384, 697

state-owned enterprises (SOEs), 44, 47, 559, 585, 601, 607, 611, 621–623, 634, 644–645, 647–648, 652, 682, 690

Stürmer, Boris, 341

Sui dynasty, 116, 128, 147–153, 165, 179, 186–187

Sun Yat-sen, 25–26, 28, 32, 81, 264, 388, 400, 420–421, 423, 426–428, 437, 441–442, 444, 448, 463–466, 468–469, 473, 513

Sun-Joffe Manifesto, the, 465

Taishō period, 678, 680

Taiwan, xix, 8, 11, 52, 71, 86, 160, 507, 509, 537, 655, 659, 675–688

Tan Zhenlin, 477

Tang Code, the, 107, 152–153

Tang dynasty, 116, 154–156, 158, 188–189, 194, 453

Tao Chengzhang, 441–442, 444, 448

theory (theories) of social evolution, or social evolutionary theory, the, 231, 403–408, 447

Third Estate, the, of France, 221, 226–227

Three Represents Theory, the, of the CCP, 49, 635

Tkachev, Pyotr, 323–324

Tocqueville, Alexis de, 245

Tongmenghui (United League), of China, 420–424, 428, 434, 441–445, 448, 451, 474

total factor productivity (TFP), 651, 652

totalitarian ideology, the, 2, 204, 215–217, 253, 345, 383, 389, 405, 587, 664, 713

totalitarian regime, the, xv–xvi, 1–3, 5–8, 12–13, 18–19, 27, 33–34, 39, 42, 52, 54, 57, 64, 66, 68, 71, 88, 119, 202–205, 209, 211, 213, 217, 226, 229, 233, 240–242, 255, 259, 261–262, 264, 291, 293, 299, 306, 312–317, 327, 330, 336, 355, 358, 360, 363, 369–370, 374–378, 382, 389, 440, 499–500, 512, 519, 521, 525, 530, 540, 553–554, 572, 580, 587, 590, 595–596, 598, 600, 604, 615, 617, 619–620, 623–624, 630, 633, 636, 641–642, 647, 652, 658–659, 663–668, 673, 688–689, 691–694, 696–697, 700, 702–703, 706, 711, 713–714, 718–719

totalitarianism

China shares features with, 122–125, 148, 180

collapse of, 688, 693–695, 699–700, 703, 707, 713, 720

communist totalitarianism, xvi, 1–2, 7–8, 18, 30, 38, 88, 202, 213–216, 225, 234–235, 251–255, 262, 264, 281, 299, 303, 315–317, 326, 359, 383, 385, 392, 395, 404, 445, 450–451, 543–544, 553, 555–556, 570, 585, 592, 594, 599, 616, 619, 623, 630–631, 646, 658–659, 663, 665, 667, 672, 674, 682, 687, 695–696, 699–705, 707, 709

definition of, 1, 659, 672

discontent with or resistance to, 547, 695–696, 698–701, 704–706

evolution of or history of, 4, 663

expansion of or rise of, 13–14, 674

ideology of, 214–215, 218, 220, 225–226, 229–230, 234–235, 251–256, 701–705, 709

in China, 24–28, 31–37, 392, 404, 445, 449, 451

misunderstanding of, 3, 6, 616, 658–659, 667, 670

operation or mechanism of totalitarianism or totalitarian system, 370, 383, 389, 489, 512, 547, 552, 573, 592, 641, 659, 671–672, 709

origin of, 4, 27–31, 202, 216–218, 220–221, 226, 229–230, 234–235, 253–256, 663, 672

Russian creation of, 315–318, 326, 328, 395

Russian origin of, 261–265, 279–282, 292, 299, 303, 450

township and village enterprises (TVEs), 562, 586, 602, 606–607, 615, 620–621

Trotsky, Leon, 2, 307, 325, 328, 331–333, 335, 337, 345, 350, 352–354, 356–357, 359, 363–364, 369, 372, 379, 386, 465–466, 570, 605

Tsarism, 169, 274, 276, 278, 337, 451, 673

Tsarist imperial system, the, 10, 276, 309, 314, 316, 336, 338–339, 358–359

Tsarist Russia, 7, 12, 27–28, 30, 32, 103, 122, 261–262, 265, 270, 272, 274, 277, 291, 299, 304, 316, 339–340, 369, 394–395, 413, 434, 450–451, 455, 474, 501, 509, 535, 663, 673–674, 701

Tsinghua University, 535, 581, 611

Tver, 268

tyranny, 36, 113, 179, 369–370, 661

Ukraine, 381, 722

Ulpian, Domitian, 109, 111

unification, 152, 186, 268–269, 272, 401, 501

Union of Liberation, the, of Russia, 306, 308

Union of Railway Workers (URW), 362

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), 84, 375, 508, 537, 540, 541, 614–617, 691, 693, 705

Union of Unions, the, of Russia, 307–308

United Front system, 532

United Front Work Department (UFWD), of China, 536

United Nobility, the, of Russia, 341

vassals, 127, 130–131, 145–147, 149, 182, 267, 286

Versailles, 223

Vilensky-Sibiryakov, Vladimir, 457

Voitinsky, Grigori, 456–458, 460

Voltaire, M.de, 141, 224, 237–240, 243–247, 250, 260, 300

Wałȩsa, Lech, 699, 706

Wan Li, 602, 605, 613

Wang Anshi, 190–192, 201, 392

Wang Guangmei, 574, 581

Wang Hairong, 576, 593

Wang Jiaxiang, 484, 488, 490, 494

Wang Jingwei, 25, 468, 513

Wang Ming, 488–491, 493–494

Wang Qishan, 51, 580, 718

Wang Shiwei, 491–492

Wang Tao, 400, 404, 446

Wang Zhen, 580, 610

Wang Zuo, 477, 481

War of Liberation, the, of China, 501, 518, 524

War of Resistance against Japan, the, of China, 485, 505

War to Resist US Aggression and Aid Korea, the, of China, 517, 519, 529

Warring States period, of China, 18, 106, 131–134, 136–137, 147, 161, 181

Warsaw, xix, 700–701, 703, 707

Wei Yuan, 185, 396

Wen Jiabao, 718

Western Wei, 147

Whampoa Military Academy, the, of China, 467–468, 669

Wild Lily Movement, the, of Taiwan, 685

Witte, Sergei, 304, 308, 310, 339

World Trade Organization (WTO), 44, 644

Wu Yuzhang, 420, 494, 509

Wudou (Violent Struggle), 584

Wuhan, 421, 430, 462

Xi Jinping, 44, 46, 51, 58, 155, 486, 580, 616, 626, 630, 634, 636, 670, 718–719

Xi Zhongxun, 486, 522, 527–528, 603

Xi’an Incident, the, of China, 81, 503, 516

Xiang Ying, 484

Xiang Zhongfa, 484

Xiao Jun, 491

Xiao Ke, 485, 613

Xiao Xiang, 419

Xingzhonghui (Revive China Society), 441, 443–444

Yakovlev, Alexander, 694, 705, 709, 713

Yan Fu, 122, 399–400, 403–407, 431–432

Yan’an, 477–478, 488, 492, 503, 505–506, 548

Yan’an Central Party School, of the CCP, 491

Yan’an Rectification, of the CCP, 33, 335, 389, 485, 487, 489, 491, 519, 552, 567, 629

Yang Du, 431–432

Yang Shangkun, 710

Yang Xiuqing, 438, 440

Yavlinsky, Grigory, 693

Ye Jianying, 527, 593, 597

Ye Ting, 522

Yeltsin, Boris, 53, 693, 705–706, 717

Yijing, 168, 195

Youth League faction, the, of China, 717–718

Yuan Shikai, 107, 405, 410, 422–423, 426–433, 445, 447, 452, 469

Yuan Wencai, 477, 481

Zhang Aiping, 613

Zhang Bojun, 550

Zhang Guotao, 454, 456–459, 462, 465, 471, 484, 523, 666

Zhang Juzheng, 392

Zhang Shengfu, 456

Zhang Tailei, 459, 465–466

Zhang Wentian, 490, 493

Zhang Xueliang, 503

Zhao Ziyang, 2, 55, 335, 372, 598, 601–602, 605–606, 609–610, 612–613, 627, 656, 710, 719

Zheng Guanying, 400, 404

Zhenguan zhengyao (The Essentials of Governance of Emperor Taizong’s Reign), 195

Zhongshu sheng (Palace Secretariat), of Chinese Empire, 143, 154

Zhou dynasty, the, 168, 178, 193

Zhou Enlai, 456, 471–472, 484, 493–495, 506–507, 529, 536, 549, 557, 573, 581, 583, 589

Zhou li, 184–185

Zhu De, 448, 456, 477–478, 482, 484, 494, 522–523

Zhu Rongji, 550, 621

Zhu Xi, 176, 192–195, 197

Zinoviev, Grigory, 330–333, 352, 354, 372, 385–387, 389, 466

Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), 195, 200

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