In places where multiple related taxa are invasive and known to hybridize, it is important to have correct identifications to enable an appropriate legal, ecological, and management understanding of each kind of invader. Invasive knotweeds in the genus Reynoutria Houtt. are noxious weeds in Europe, North America, Africa, and Oceania, where they disrupt native plant communities and negatively impact human activities. Two species (Japanese knotweed [Reynoutria japonica Houtt.; syn.: Polygonum cuspidatum Siebold & Zucc.] and giant knotweed [Reynoutria sachalinensis (F. Schmidt ex Maxim.) Nakai; syn.: Polygonum sachalinense F. Schmidt ex Maxim.]) and their hybrid (known as Bohemian knotweed [Reynoutria ×bohemica Chrtek & Chrtková; syn.: Polygonum ×bohemicum (J. Chrtek & Chrtková) Zika & Jacobson [cuspidatum × sachalinense]]) have similar invasive tendencies, although there are some noted differences among them in their reproduction potential, ecological tolerance, and effect on native communities. Prior studies demonstrated that not only one kind of interspecific hybrid exists, but in fact there are at least four kinds that differ in the sequence variants they possess from each parent. Thus, in addition to identifying plants as hybrids, it may become important to distinguish each kind of hybrid when considering control or treatment strategies. In the current study, we expand the available genetic information for invasive Reynoutria by providing expanded DNA sequence data for the low-copy nuclear gene LEAFY, which has become important for characterizing hybrids. Our methods recover the same LEAFY genotypes that were identified previously for the commonly sequenced second intron, and we also provide sequence data for the first intron and second exon of the gene.

Vallisneria × pseudorosulata S. Fujii & M. Maki is an invasive aquatic weed that has recently become a major issue within the U.S. Southeast. Vallisneria × pseudorosulata is a hybrid between two nonnative eelgrass species (Vallisneria spiralis L. and Vallisneria denseserrulata Makino) and has rapidly overtaken water bodies in Tennessee, Alabama, and Florida. This hybrid can reproduce rapidly through offshoot formation and floating propagules capable of drifting large distances before establishing. Vallisneria × pseudorosulata has been previously found in Japan and is thought to have been introduced in the United States by the aquarium trade or through dumping.

Urban areas are increasingly recognized as important centers of biodiversity. Nonetheless, invasive species can reduce this biodiversity, and cities can be hubs for alien plant invasions, highlighting the need to monitor urban biodiversity and problematic alien species. The goal of our study was to assess the distribution of wild chervil [Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm.] and anise [Myrrhis odorata (L.) Scop.] in green spaces of Reykjavík, Iceland. This information is necessary to implement the city’s biodiversity strategy regarding invasive species. Both of these alien plants are spreading throughout Iceland, and Reykjavík’s high-latitude location (≥63°N) and remoteness make it an ideal case study to assess alien plant introductions and invasions in subarctic urban areas. We surveyed four green spaces (Laugarnes, Vatnsmýri, Elliðaárdalur, and Ægisiða) from May to October 2017 using AllTrailsPro and ArcGIS mobile applications. ANOVA and Bonferroni correction (post hoc test) were used to compare the distribution and patch sizes of A. sylvestris and M. odorata among the study sites. We found that A. sylvestris covered at least 10% (15.5 ha) of the total area surveyed (158 ha), while M. odorata only covered ≤1 ha. Both plants were abundant near buildings, pathways, riversides, and streams, and they are expanding their distribution in Reykjavík’s green spaces. While A. sylvestris is clearly more established and widespread with larger patches (>100 m2), the distribution of M. odorata is more localized, occurring mainly in smaller patches (<100 m2). We recommend long-term monitoring to further assess M. odorata’s invasive potential, as well as testing and adopting integrated weed management strategies via adaptive management to control the distribution of A. sylvestris and that of other problematic alien plants. These actions, which are applicable to other subarctic cities, will help foster more proactive management encouraging urban biodiversity.

Citizen science is becoming very useful in surveying and monitoring biodiversity. Within the European Union LIFE medCLIFFS project, a network of volunteers has been established for the detection and long-term monitoring of invasive plant species that threaten the endemic flora of Mediterranean cliffs in northeastern Spain. Through iNaturalist, volunteers record various data along a series of 1-km transects. Based on the ca. 700 observations collected by volunteers in 2023 (the first year of the project), a simple and visually attractive methodology for assessing the recorded populations has been developed. This method classifies populations into one of three population dynamics categories: (1) propagative behavior (i.e., populations with seedlings or young plants but lacking senescent or dead individuals); (2) senescent behavior (i.e., showing senescent/dead plants but lacking seedlings/juveniles); and (3) a mixed behavior (i.e., containing both). This methodology, whose outputs are easily interpretable as heat maps, allows the collection of large datasets on invasive plants by citizen scientists, with two main purposes: (1) knowing which species are most concerning based on simple, straightforward observations of their population dynamics; and (2) identifying which regions of the study area are more problematic and where management efforts should therefore be directed.

Reduced hack and squirt (RHS) is a herbicide-injection technique that controls woody species with a limited number of hacks. When used with aminopyralid or aminocyclopyrachlor, the technique controls multistemmed shrubs such as Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolia Raddi) and Surinam cherry (Eugenia uniflora L.). However, additional data are needed to compare its effectiveness on other woody invasive species against standard individual-plant treatment techniques. We compared RHS with aminocyclopyrachlor or aminopyralid administered with 0.5 ml of undiluted concentrate (240 g L−1) against traditional basal bark and cut stump techniques using triclopyr at 96 and 120 g L−1, respectively, on six invasive trees in Florida, USA. For all species tested, the RHS technique with aminocyclopyrachlor was not different or was more effective than basal bark or cut stump treatment with triclopyr. The RHS technique with aminopyralid was effective on certain species but did not control as many species as RHS with aminocyclopyrachlor or cut stump treatment with triclopyr. The RHS technique required significantly less time than cut stump treatment but was not different from basal bark treatment. Across all species, when compared with basal bark and cut stump treatment with triclopyr, the RHS approach resulted in reductions of average total herbicide mix applied by 98% and 89%, respectively. For herbicide active ingredient, when compared with basal bark and cut stump treatment with triclopyr, RHS resulted in reductions of 95% and 86%, respectively. These results indicate that when compared to conventional individual plant treatment (IPT) approaches with triclopyr, the RHS approach yielded a high level of target efficacy on a broad spectrum of species, comparable or shorter application times, and substantial reductions in herbicide mix and active ingredient applied. Future research should seek continued refinement of this technique for woody plant control on other troublesome invaders.

Tree-afflicting pests, such as insects and pathogens, could change forests in ways promoting invasions by non-native plants. After tree death associated with the fungal pathogen oak wilt (Bretziella fagacearum) and its attempted containment (severing root connectivity and sanitation removal of infected trees), we examined change in cover of the non-native liana Oriental bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb.; hereafter Celastrus) at 28 sites in temperate black oak (Quercus velutina Lam.) forests, Ohio, USA. During our 5-yr study spanning 2020 to 2024, Celastrus cover increased significantly (P < 0.05) through time at oak wilt sites but not in untreated reference forest sites without evidence of oak wilt. Celastrus cover increased by an order of magnitude, up to an average of 32 times among oak wilt treatments up to 10 yr old. By 2024, Celastrus cover ranged from 6% to 22% on average in 5- to 10-yr-old oak wilt treatments, compared with 1% cover in reference forest. Results indicate that non-native plant invasion accelerated following disturbance associated with a fungal pathogen and its attempted containment and, more generally, suggest that tree-afflicting pests can promote invasive plants in forests. Co-management of tree-afflicting pests and non-native plants may become increasingly important to ensure forests recovering from tree mortality are dominated by native plants.

Invasive plants’ ability to extend their range depends upon their local environments and both positive and negative interactions with native species. Interactions between invasive and native plants may be indirectly linked to the soil fungal community, which may enhance or suppress invasion through mutualism or parasitism. Many invasive plants preferentially select fungal communities or change soil chemistry to gain a competitive advantage, and such changes can remain even after the invader is removed, known as legacy effects. Yellow toadflax (Linaria vulgaris Mill.) is an invasive forb that is aggressive in the western United States but is nonaggressive in the midwestern United States. We evaluated the relationship between soil abiotic properties, nitrogen (N) enrichment, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) community composition, and L. vulgaris invasion in aggressive (CO) and nonaggressive (IL) populations. We collected soil from uninvaded and invaded sites in Gothic, CO, and near Chicago, IL, and sequenced AMF community composition in each site. Using the same soil, we grew L. vulgaris and native species in pots for 120 d, with half of the pots receiving N fertilization, and harvested biomass. We also injected a 15N-labeled tracer in pots and analyzed plant tissue for 15N enrichment and net uptake rates (NUR). In CO soil, L. vulgaris rhizomes sprouted more in invaded soil, whereas in IL soil, L. vulgaris only sprouted in uninvaded soil. N fertilization had no impact on biomass, and NUR did not differ significantly between any treatments. AMF communities differed between the two sites but were not significantly influenced by invasion history. Our results suggest that L. vulgaris leaves legacy effects but that these effects are different between aggressive and nonaggressive populations. Legacy effects may facilitate reinvasion in CO, but we did not find conclusive evidence of legacy effects in IL, and differences between the sites could be shaped by endemic AMF communities.

Several Elaeagnus species (autumn olive [Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.], Russian olive [Elaeagnus angustifolia L.], and thorny olive [Elaeagnus pungens Thunb.]) are invasive in North America. Elaeagnus pungens is prevalent throughout much of the southeastern United States, commonly overtaking wooded and natural areas, bottomlands, and roadsides. While many management methods, including several herbicide treatments, have been evaluated, the efficacy of these methods can vary based on the size and density of the target plants. Further, personal communication with land managers revealed a lack of information that incorporated application effort, duration, and associated cost into treatment efficacy and usefulness. We evaluated three herbicide application methods using the free acid formulation of triclopyr in an E. pungens–infested forest in South Carolina, USA, to determine the effectiveness of each application method. We estimated pretreatment E. pungens biomass and destructively harvested all live material posttreatment to obtain actual biomass values. Foliar herbicide application was ineffective, but both cut stump and basal bark application nearly eliminated E. pungens in the treatment plots. The basal bark application took slightly more time to complete than cut stump treatments but was described as less physically demanding by applicators. Based on treatment efficacy and time required, the basal bark application method seems most prudent for controlling E. pungens in these areas. These results will help land managers more effectively use their resources for invasive woody plant control.

Amur honeysuckle [Lonicera maackii (Rupr.) Herder] is an aggressive invader of forests throughout the eastern United States. While self-pollination has been identified as an important trait of invasive plant species, this trait is understudied, and L. maackii is anecdotally described as lacking this characteristic. To examine the ability of L. maackii to self-pollinate, we selected 171 individual shrubs distributed across nine sites. Each site was grouped into one of three invasion types: heavy, light, and sprouting (sites on which a basal cutting treatment previously occurred, but L. maackii was allowed to reestablish). We compared the number of berries, seeds per berry, and seed germination rates of self- and open-pollinated flowers by pairing branches covered with pollination bags before flower emergence with uncovered branches on the same individual shrub. Out of 171 individuals, 48 produced berries from self-pollination within pollination bags (28%), with 48% of bagged branches exhibiting some degree of necrosis or chlorosis, presumably due to increased temperature and humidity. Berries from self-pollination produced 1.5 ± 1.4 (mean ± 1 SD) seeds per berry, whereas berries resulting from open pollination produced 3.3 ± 1.5 seeds per berry. In a germination trial, 47.3% of self-pollinated seeds germinated compared with 41.7% of open-pollinated seeds. This study has shown that L. maackii can self-pollinate and set viable seed, providing the species with an important mechanism to increase population abundance during the early stages of invasion.

While invasive plants can modify community and ecosystem attributes, there is little information on their impact across different trophic levels. Here, we examined the effects of Chilean rhubarb [Gunnera tinctoria Molina (Mirb.), Gunneraceae] on the soil detrital food chain, the major pathway for energy flow in terrestrial ecosystems and the recycling of nutrients. Measurements of soil physiochemical properties and the natural abundances of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) isotopes, along with assessments of microbial and earthworm populations were used to verify whether G. tinctoria drives the soil food web and how C is transferred from decomposing litter to worm populations. Based on the C isotope compositions of plant material and detritivorous worms (i.e., earthworms and enchytraeid worms), all worms contribute to G. tinctoria litter decomposition, irrespective of their feeding preference. The increased role of larger earthworm populations in litter decomposition was also associated with changes in the soil microbial community, with some bacterial genera being absent from invaded areas. Of particular interest was a 3-fold increase in Nitrospira spp. in invaded areas, likely due to an increase in earthworm-related ammonia production, with this being rapidly converted to nitrate. Given the poor representation of other ammonia- and nitrite-oxidizing soil bacteria, many of the Nitrospira spp. present in invaded soils may perform complete ammonia oxidation (i.e., COMAMMOX). Our results indicate a greater role for native earthworms in decomposition processes in areas invaded by G. tinctoria, resulting in modifications in the other soil biota and an increase in soil nitrate.

We report a pair of simple polymerase chain reaction–restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) assays based on two independently segregating nuclear genes that can differentiate the North American native [Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. ssp. americanus Saltonst., P.M. Peterson & Soreng] from other lineages. Because nuclear markers are inherited biparentally, researchers can also use them to screen for F1 hybrids between P. australis ssp. americanus and the other lineages. We show that a previously described assay based on an indel in the nuclear gene NRT2 consistently identifies a wide range of P. australis ssp. americanus haplotypes and distinguishes them from the Gulf Coast type [Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. ssp. berlandieri (E. Fourn.) Saltonst. & Hauber]. We also demonstrate a new PCR-RFLP assay for a previously described diagnostic single-nucleotide polymorphism adjacent to the PaGT4 microsatellite marker that also distinguishes P. australis ssp. americanus from the other lineages. In addition, we report the first case of Asian haplotype AS identified in North America and make recommendations for its detection. Our findings expand the tools available to those monitoring for invasion by introduced Phragmites in North America.

An online survey was distributed to South Dakota stakeholders to understand how noxious weeds are currently being managed. The response rate was 26%; 129 stakeholders completed the survey of the 491 stakeholders who opened the survey. Eighty percent of respondents stated noxious weeds were a problem. Canada thistle [Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.], leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula L.), and absinth wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L.) were the most common and troublesome, but all statewide noxious weeds were reported. The most common singular response to manage noxious weeds was herbicides alone (25%), but respondents utilized two (27%) to three (24%) other tactics as well. Most respondents (47%) were somewhat satisfied with management tactics, while others were completely satisfied (9%), neither satisfied nor dissatisfied (20%), somewhat unsatisfied (11%), or very unsatisfied (15%). A covariate analysis showed that the more management tactics individual stakeholders utilized, the less satisfied they were with control (P < 0.0001). The most common barrier of adopting new tactics was effectiveness (26%) followed by a combination of effectiveness + current production practices + cost + labor (13%). An additional covariate analysis showed that the increase in management tactics increased the barriers of adoption (P = 0.04) and increasing the number of barriers of adoption resulted in stakeholders being dissatisfied with control (P = 0.0003). Overall, the results of the survey suggest that statewide noxious weeds remain a problem, and multiple tactics are used to manage these weeds. However, Cooperative extension efforts need to address how to use current management and implement new management strategies to increase effectiveness.

Cophinforma spp. are gall-inducing fungi that can infect the highly invasive Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolia Raddi), in its introduced range in southern Florida, USA. A classical biological control agent, the thrips Pseudophilothrips ichini, has been released to mitigate the invasive potential of S. terebinthifolia. We investigated the synergistic potential of thrips feeding damage and gall formation on S. terebinthifolia management program success. A group of potted S. terebinthifolia saplings were inoculated with Cophinforma. Galled, symptomatic and ungalled, asymptomatic saplings were then paired in laboratory cages for a two-choice test with 40 P. ichini adults. Galled and ungalled plants were assessed for dead stem tips and necrotic stem tissue, with and without thrips present. Larval F1 thrips were also counted on each plant. Thrips feeding damage significantly increased the number of dead tips and extent of stem necrosis. Regardless of thrips presence, stem tip mortality and extent of necrosis were not significantly different between galled and ungalled plant pairs. Additionally, the maximum number of F1 larvae counted on stems did not differ between those on galled versus ungalled plants. Gall growth on heavily thrips-damaged plants nearly stopped, while galls continued to grow on plants with little thrips damage. While our results suggest the Cophinforma galls do not impact damage potential or plant preference from P. ichini, more work is needed to understand other factors that may contribute to at least additive impacts on S. terebinthifolia in the field, such as more advanced stages of the fungal infection on mature plants and prolonged thrips feeding damage.

Basal bark application involves applying an oil-soluble herbicide in an oil carrier to the lower 0 to 45 cm of woody stems. For triclopyr, basal bark application typically requires the butoxyethyl ester formulation; however, this cannot be applied when standing water is present, which is common in seasonally flooded wetlands. Recently, the intermediate oil and water-soluble triclopyr acid formulation was registered for use in aquatic sites, allowing for basal bark applications in wetlands where standing water is present. Recent studies indicated that flooding after basal bark treatment can result in triclopyr release to surface waters and subsequent non-target injury. Elevated band application height (i.e., treating a higher band on each stem) may reduce non-target injury potential; however, this modified application technique has not been well tested on woody invasive species. To evaluate this approach, a field study on Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolia Raddi) was conducted near Melbourne and Wimauma, FL, on well-established and juvenile rootstocks. Treatments included triclopyr acid at 17, 34, and 69 g L−1 applied in an oil carrier and treatment band heights of 0 to 45 cm and 61 to 107 cm from the groundline. At Melbourne, both band heights treated with 34 or 69 g L−1 resulted in 75% to 100% mortality of mature rootstocks. However, triclopyr applied at 17 g L−1 to the low and elevated band heights resulted in 70% and 11% mortality, respectively. All treatments resulted in 90% to 100% mortality at Wimauma, where the rootstocks were juvenile and much smaller. These findings indicate elevated band heights may be a useful approach for woody plant control and may support an effective management strategy in inundated wetlands that provides better prevention of non-target injury.

Boneseed [Chrysanthemoides monilifera subsp. monilifera (L.) Norl.; syn. Osteospermum moniliferum subsp. moniliferum L.] is a perennial shrub native to the southwestern and southern coasts of South Africa. It was introduced to Australia in about 1852 and now represents a significant threat to natural ecosystems. Despite C. monilifera subsp. monilifera being listed as a Weed of National Significance, momentum on improving its management has dissipated at a national level, beginning in 2008 (when a national research initiative finished) and increasingly after 2013 (when funding for national coordination ceased). A recent synthesis of past management for C. monilifera subsp. monilifera and recommendations for guiding future priorities has rekindled interest in Western Australia. To complement this synthesis and to identify improvements for program efficiency and effectiveness, we reviewed research and management findings on this weed with a focus on the past two decades. We collated information across the ecology and biology of C. monilifera subsp. monilifera, and the near relative, bitou bush [Chrysanthemoides monilifera subsp. rotunda (DC.) J.C. Manning & Goldblatt; syn. Osteospermum moniliferum subsp. rotundatum (DC.)], as well as useful insight from C. monilifera subsp. monilifera management programs applied elsewhere. As part of this review, we assessed the classical biological control work that has been done on C. monilifera subsp. monilifera, focusing on likely explanations for why, despite nine agents and a naturalized fungus, biological control is not an effective management tool. Our synthesis suggests that for the limited populations with low-abundance plants in Western Australia, eradication from the state remains a realistic target. This objective, however, needs to build on the collated baseline of past management efforts and deploy a carefully planned management program over the coming two decades. Systematic surveillance using the latest techniques, combined with manual or herbicide removal and controlled burns where possible, remain the most suitable methods to deploy. The long-lived soil seedbank requires detailed monitoring following initial plant removals and long-term funding to ensure the sustained effort required to deliver the goal of eradication of C. monilifera subsp. monilifera in Western Australia.

Rainfall is the main driving factor for soil-active herbicides, influencing their incorporation, leaching, and absorption. Studies were conducted to determine the effects of simulated rainfall and hexazinone application rates on giant smutgrass [Sporobolus indicus (L.) R. Br. var. pyramidalis (P. Beauv.) Veldkamp] control and the impacts of application timing and rates on S. indicus var. pyramidalis in the field. Greenhouse experiments were established in Florida between 2017 and 2018, comprising hexazinone application rates of 0.56 and 1.12 kg ai ha−1, and seven simulated rainfall accumulation volumes (0, 6, 12, 25, 50, 100, and 200 mm), distributed in a completely randomized design with four replicates and a non-treated control. Field experiments were conducted in a split-plot arrangement, wherein main plots were application timings at 1-wk intervals, subplots were two hexazinone application rates (0.56 and 1.12 kg ha−1) and a non-treated control, distributed in a randomized complete block design, with four replicates. In the greenhouse experiment, 49 and 92 mm were required to obtain 50% visual control and 35 and 82 mm to reduce biomass by 50% for hexazinone rates of 0.56 and 1.12 kg ai ha−1, respectively. Field experiments showed that hexazinone peak efficacy was from mid-June to mid-August when applications were followed by 10 to 75 mm of rainfall during the first 7 d after treatment. The recommended rate of hexazinone at 1.12 kg ai ha−1 should be applied, as it has an extended window of optimum application timing.

Invasive common reed [Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. ssp. australis] has established and dominated Ontario wetlands for decades. The detrimental effects of P. australis invasions on wetland habitats have demanded intervention through aggressive suppression efforts. However, constraints in available control methods to suppress P. australis have led to persistent invasions. To improve P. australis management in wetlands, we investigated remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPASs) as a precision tool for herbicide application. We applied an imazapyr-based herbicide (240 g ai L−1) with a spray-equipped RPAS at selected test sites, marking the first-ever application of its kind in Canada. We then (1) evaluated the efficacy of RPAS-based herbicide application to P. australis and (2) examined the plant community changes 1 yr after the initial herbicide application. We found a >99% reduction in live P. australis stems, along with reductions in species richness (33%), Shannon-Weiner diversity (73%), Simpson’s reciprocal diversity (50%), and Pielou’s evenness (73%) in the year following herbicide application. Plant community changes varied by field site; one wetland underwent a secondary invasion by European frog-bit (Hydrocharis morsus-ranae L.) while the other was dominated by the native spotted jewelweed (Impatiens capensis Meerb.), highlighting the complexities of plant community succession following herbicide application in biodiverse wetlands.

Introductions of new crops can provide alternate market opportunities, but also may pose ecological risks. New crops lack established management, have uncertain performance issues, and may become weedy in their introduced region. The introduction of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) into southern Florida poses a unique introduction scenario because of the subtropical climate and no commercial production on record, unlike in other eastern and midwestern U.S. states. We assessed the escape from cultivation for hemp by tracking establishment and reproduction of volunteer plants from the earliest modern hemp planting in Florida. Hemp is a weed across much of the United States matching its historical distribution and has been assessed to be of high invasion risk for Florida because of its biological attributes, history of escape, and colonization in other states and countries. We conducted monitoring of volunteer plants and a seed establishment experiment in southern Florida finding that hemp volunteer plants occurred in pulses over time, with variable and declining germination. Volunteer plants persisted for up to 2 yr and appeared in areas that were disked and mowed according to USDA-approved hemp crop termination procedures. In the seed establishment experiment, we found that hemp established in disturbed soils (∼9% of seeds planted) and that mean plant heights and seed counts were positively related to soil disturbance and nutrient addition. These findings showed that hemp plantings should be monitored for volunteer establishment, and containment plans should be in place to control the establishment of volunteer hemp plants in agricultural fields. Our study further illustrates the need for multiyear monitoring and repeat termination procedures to ensure containment of hemp volunteers. There was limited evidence of volunteer establishment in surrounding areas and on undisturbed land. However, seed containment, equipment cleaning, and the monitoring of nearby fields and seed transportation routes remains warranted.

Lindenleaf sage (Salvia tiliifolia Vahl) is an annual plant native to Mesoamerica that thrives in tropical, seasonally dry environments. It was introduced to Ethiopia in the late 20th century and made its way to the Tembien highlands in Tigray in 2018. With its many branching stems and profusion of seeds, this upright pioneer plant becomes dominant in the herbaceous layer of intensively used rangeland and roadsides before spreading to areas with other land uses, including agricultural land. Visual observations show that S. tiliifolia is not prevalent in areas with less grazing pressure. Farmers uproot S. tiliifolia from their crops, which is rather simple, because this species is easily recognized and its roots do not withstand much force. On rangeland, weeding is labor-intensive. As an alternative, we recommend converting rangelands into managed exclosures to maximize grass production, with initial S. tiliifolia removal. Natural vegetation regrowth in infested places would keep the most significant S. tiliifolia seed supply under control and reduce the species’ invasion of farmlands.