There’s so much to discover about being human. The more we know, the better equipped we are to build the lives we want.
Fish gotta’ swim, birds gotta’ fly.
When we see fish swim and birds fly, it seems perfectly natural. After all, that’s what they are designed to do. So, what comes naturally to members of our species? Although there are many answers to this question, they all boil down to a fundamental, overarching design principle (Damasio, 2003; Klinger & Cox, 2004):
Humans evolved to formulate and selectively pursue goals that, when accomplished, would enhance their survival and well-being, both individually and collectively.
That design principle has made it possible for humanity to accumulate cultural solutions and innovations at a breathtaking pace. As a result, we can live virtually anywhere on the planet. We can imagine possibilities that do not yet exist and adapt to unfamiliar circumstances. We can invent new capabilities (like flying!) and share what we have learned with others.
Like all species, we are creatures of habit. Yet we are also capable of profound change. Indeed, because of the way we are designed, it is possible for every individual person to envision a better future for themselves and to take action to try to make those goal thoughts a reality. In other words, we are all designed to be self-directed. Within each and every one of us is the power to improve – or even transform – our own lives and the lives of those around us.
Surprisingly, during much of the twentieth century, scientists studying motivation were not particularly interested in what makes us self-directed or how to strengthen that natural capability. Instead, mainstream theory and research focused on how our actions are influenced by external forces (like rewards and punishments) and biological mandates (like drives and impulses). Goal images and ideas were not only ignored as potential targets of research; they were regarded as unimportant and “unscientific” (D. Ford, 1987/2019; Seligman et al., 2013).
This mechanistic (machine-like) view of humans inhibited progress in understanding the natural gifts that enable us to be self-directed. Fortunately, things gradually began to change mid-century as systems models focused on goal pursuit began to emerge (e.g., G. Miller et al., 1960) and humanistic scholars introduced compelling theories emphasizing concepts like “self-actualization” and the “fully functioning person” (Maslow, 1954, 1962; Rogers, 1961). Eventually, by the 1980s, all mainstream theories of motivation were using terms that acknowledged the central role of self-direction in human behavior and development – terms like goal setting, self-efficacy, self-determination, internal locus of control, and personal striving, to name just a few (Reference FordM. Ford, 1992).
Nevertheless, it has been challenging for both psychologists and the general public to escape the historical vestiges of a way of thinking that emphasized external direction over self-direction. It is easy, for example, to think of goal setting as something that bosses and parents and teachers do for us. Emotions can be dismissed as transient and unsystematic motivational forces. Even beliefs about personal control and competence can be treated as little more than a psychological facade, with the external influences that shape those beliefs still regarded as the underlying causes of our actions.
In short, it is not enough to superficially acknowledge that thoughts and feelings are part of the motivational landscape. Each of us must have genuine respect for self-direction as a basic, unifying design principle to truly understand our potential for motivating self and others. Yes, we are of course all influenced a great deal by forces outside of our control. That too is part of how we are designed. But when we look at the way our species evolved over the eons, it is clear that life is all about imagining goal possibilities and then selectively pursuing those opportunities most likely to enhance our “survival with well-being” (Damasio, 2003). That is the central organizing force in human behavior and development (Klinger & Cox, 2004; Seligman et al., 2013).
The Difference between Functioning and Optimal Functioning
There are many things we can do to strengthen and enrich motivation. That is the key to transforming ordinary lives into extraordinary lives. Yet, when we look at the basics of human functioning, it is clear that motivational processes are always active at some level. We can’t stop our minds from generating goal images and ideas. We can’t stop ourselves from having thoughts and feelings that influence what goals we pursue. Even when our minds are wandering and we are not actively pursuing any particular goal, motivationally relevant thoughts and feelings continue to flow (as when we are daydreaming, reflecting on recent events, or worrying about life’s uncertainties). The most we can do is to try to calm down the mind’s natural inclination to evaluate and emotionally respond to things we perceive and think about. Indeed, that is the key skill that “mindfulness meditation” experts seek to cultivate in themselves and their students (Reference Goyal, Singh, Sibinga, Gould, Rowland-Seymour, Sharma and HaythornthwaiteGoyal et al., 2014). By diminishing the strength of the “spark before the flame” (an apt metaphor from traditional Buddhist literature), those who have mastered this skill can quickly dismiss evaluative thoughts that might otherwise lead to mental commotion and worry.
The example of the “motivated meditator” makes it clear that, when we consider how the human mind is naturally designed, the question isn’t how to turn someone’s motivation “on” or “off.” Rather, the question is, among all of the possibilities that cross our minds, why we choose to pursue some goals (with varying degrees of frequency, effort, and persistence) and not others. And can we use our capacity for self-direction to make different choices – better choices, with better outcomes for ourselves and others? In other words, can we go beyond ordinary functioning to something closer to optimal functioning? Or, to use the lingo we will introduce later in this book, can we go from merely “getting by” to thriving with social purpose?
Motivation is, of course, not the only pathway to self-improvement or for helping others with their goal pursuits. As we will explain in some detail in Chapter 5, optimal human functioning can also be promoted by developing knowledge and skills, by enhancing biological health and fitness, and by increasing available opportunities and resources. Nevertheless, because motivation plays a leadership role in directing, organizing, and regulating goal-directed activity, it is often the most powerful and efficient pathway for developing human potential. Indeed, studies of world-class experts and performers have repeatedly shown that the highest levels of achievement and creativity are most closely associated not with precocious talent or extraordinary intelligence but with motivational qualities such as passionate interest, a sense of personal mission or life purpose, high levels of energy and persistence, and a strong and resilient sense of self-confidence and courage (Reference BronkBronk, 2014; Reference DamonDamon, 2008; Reference DweckDweck, 2006; Reference Snyder and LopezSnyder & Lopez, 2002, Reference Snyder and Lopez2009). Without the invigorating and sustaining power of these personal leadership qualities, cultivation of other elements of the person–environment system may be of little consequence. Imagine, for example, spending years developing the knowledge and skills needed to succeed in a career that doesn’t really interest you or devoting much of your adult life to trying to fit in with a social network that ultimately leaves you feeling empty and unfulfilled.
In contrast, increased motivation for a particular kind of goal pursuit encourages us to take action to create the conditions needed to attain those goals – like seeking out new capabilities or searching for the right “fit” in our personal and professional relationships. Motivation focuses our attention, energizes our thoughts and actions, and keeps us going when obstacles and shortcomings get in the way. In simple terms, if motivation is sufficiently strong, it can transform the entire system. That is why this book highlights the challenge of “motivating self and others.” Motivation is the key to making your life a better life – a life filled with purpose, fulfillment, and meaning.
What Is Motivation?
In this book you will learn about motivation from three different perspectives. At the core of Motivating Self and Others is an integrative, evidence-based theoretical framework – the Thriving with Social Purpose Theory of Motivation and Optimal Functioning – that is focused on the psychological processes within the person-system, with a special emphasis on motivational processes and their leadership functions. However, to the extent possible within an arena where scientific consensus on many details has not yet been reached, we also try to explain how basic motivational mechanisms work at a neurological level. That helps anchor our psychological concepts in the physical reality of the human body while also affirming that those concepts are not just arbitrary mental constructions that sound good yet fail to represent how our minds and bodies actually function. Finally, we offer an evolutionary perspective focused on the quest to understand the origins of what is unique to human motivation (and human nature in general) as it was shaped over many millennia by “gene–culture coevolution” (Reference Lumsden and WilsonLumsden & Wilson, 1981; Reference Richerson and BoydRicherson & Boyd, 2005; Reference WilsonE. O. Wilson, 2012). Of particular interest is a growing consensus that, while most of our physical and instrumental capabilities (e.g., bipedalism, sweat glands, opposable thumbs) evolved as a result of ecological selection pressures, our humanity, or essential human nature, evolved mostly as a result of social selection pressures that put goals related to social purpose at the center of our collective experiences. As we will see, insights into how we evolved can help us become more self-directed and more capable of helping others achieve their personal and professional goals.
As you immerse yourself in the layered chapters of this book, you will learn that motivation is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon. However, because motivational processes work in part by controlling what thoughts, feelings, and perceptions capture our attention, you probably already have a pretty good intuitive sense of what motivation is all about. To test this hypothesis, try the following thought experiment:
Think of the most motivating activity or experience you engaged in during the past few weeks. What were you trying to do? How did you feel? Were there particular thoughts and feelings that stood out in your mind during that experience?
Over the years we have collected hundreds of anecdotes in response to such questions. The stories people tell are both informative and inspiring. Some focus on extraordinary events, such as overcoming a major obstacle, helping someone in crisis, or birthing a baby. Others focus on everyday events that are reliable sources of life meaning, such as spending time with loved ones, earning respect through hard work, or becoming immersed in a favorite activity.
Although such stories vary widely in content, nearly all of them share common themes – themes that are at the heart of what motivation is all about. See if these themes apply to your experience.
1. A Strong Sense of Purpose (Goal Theme)
When people are highly motivated, they feel self-directed. They have personally compelling goal thoughts in their minds (e.g., “This is really important to me”; “I am on a mission”) and a sense that these ideas and images are self-chosen. Usually these goal thoughts involve clearly conceived outcomes (“I know what I want”; “This is what I need to do”) or vivid images that exemplify an extraordinarily meaningful part of their lives (e.g., images of loved ones; images of tranquil locations). The most powerful goal thoughts typically encompass multiple sources of motivation and are accompanied by feelings of authenticity and personal identity (e.g., “This is the real me”; “I am doing what I was meant to do”).
2. Emotional Experiences That Are Powerful and Memorable (Emotion Theme)
Strong motivational patterns are virtually always infused with strong emotions. These emotions are not uniformly positive (e.g., emotions like fear, anger, and guilt and related affective states like pain and fatigue can be highly motivating), but positive emotions (e.g., excitement, happiness, affection) usually predominate in the stories people tell us about their most motivating life experiences. These experiences are highly memorable because events that are emotionally intense are almost always easier to recall than experiences that are emotionally bland or neutral (Reference BowerBower, 1981).
3. Feeling Self-Confident and Supported (Personal Agency Belief Theme)
When people are highly motivated, they feel empowered and believe that they can overcome problems and obstacles. One source of empowerment is confidence in your personal capabilities, which is the dominant focus of many motivation theories. However, an equally important source of motivational power is a fundamental belief that the world around you (e.g., the social, material, and informational resources in your environment) will be supportive of your goal pursuits. When we have faith both in ourselves and in the resources and opportunities available to us, our thinking about what is possible becomes robust and expansive (“The sky’s the limit!”).
You can also get an intuitive feel for these three motivational themes by running the opposite thought experiment – that is, by thinking of a time when you were decidedly unmotivated with respect to some challenge or opportunity (e.g., a request to do an onerous chore; an invitation to attend an event that did not appeal to you). In all probability, one or more of the elements described above was clearly deficient. It might be the lack of a strong or personally meaningful goal (e.g., “That’s not my thing”), or the goal may lack sufficient clarity to be motivationally compelling (e.g., “I’m not sure what’s in it for me”). There would almost certainly be a lack of any strong supporting emotion (e.g., “I just don’t feel like it”), which may reflect a more general state of energy depletion (e.g., “I’m just not up to it right now”). Even if you have positive goals and emotions activated, you might dismiss the opportunity based on a belief that you do not have the necessary skills (e.g., “I’m intrigued but wouldn’t have a clue what to do”) or the necessary resources to take advantage of the opportunity (e.g., “Sounds great, but I can’t afford it”).
It’s Good to Have a Goal!
We frequently use this phrase to affirm that rewarding life journeys begin with personal goals that are powerful and meaningful. The phrase is a bit deceptive, because in reality, our neurons are continuously firing in ways that cause goal-related thoughts and feelings to pop into our heads – as evidenced, for example, by neuroimaging studies and eye-gaze experiments that link brain-based activity with goal-directed thoughts and actions. So, to be more precise, what we are really trying to emphasize when we say “It’s good to have a goal!” is that you can optimize your goal pursuits if you can (a) increase your awareness of the personal goals that are the most compelling and meaningful for you and (b) enhance the clarity of those goal thoughts so that they can direct and organize your behavior with strength and precision.
Do you have a good feel for what kinds of challenges and opportunities are most likely to capture your attention and “rev your motor”? Do you know what your core personal goals are – that is, the goals that, when activated and fulfilled, provide you with the greatest emotional rewards? Do you have any sense of whether your core personal goals are aligned with your current life circumstances? And do you have any idea how you might “rethink” your goals or change your circumstances to improve your goal–life alignment? These are some of the questions that we will be addressing throughout this book as we work through the implications of what it means to be self-directed, with personal responsibility to take that natural design principle and make the most of it.
Motivational Systems Theory
Consistent with the thought experiment we invited you to carry out to tap into your intuitive understanding of motivation, scientists have focused on three sets of psychological processes – personal goals, emotions, and personal agency beliefs – in their efforts to understand the key factors involved in motivating self and others. These processes work closely together as a motivational system (Reference FordM. Ford, 1992) and therefore cannot be understood in isolation.
Personal goals provide direction (i.e., self-direction) by mentally representing the future outcomes you hope to achieve and by preparing your mind and body to pursue those outcomes. Among your overall repertoire of personal goals, core personal goals are the strongest sources of direction and energy – which is why we metaphorically refer to them as “the leaders within you.”
Consistent with the integrative concept of possible selves (Reference Markus and NuriusMarkus & Nurius, 1986), different “leaders” may come to the forefront as you take on different roles and explore different ways of fulfilling the desired outcomes that you have envisioned. The most effective goal thoughts will be those that not only can arouse your passions but are also capable of efficiently organizing your thoughts and actions around coherent purposes and targeted objectives.
Emotions and personal agency beliefs (aka PABs) are also essential contributors to the leadership team in motivational headquarters – our metaphor for the dynamic convergence and integrated processing of personal goals, emotions, and personal agency beliefs. The unique role of emotions and PABs is to provide helpful guidance, sound advice, and, when necessary, compelling demands about what goals should be pursued at what level of effort and persistence.
Fans of the Star Trek franchise can picture how motivational headquarters operates by imagining the ship’s captain (the directive function) being peppered with urgent reports about the ship’s condition and impending threats (and opportunities), coupled with advice (offered with a combination of logic and emotion) about what actions need to be taken.
As we will see, in providing such advice, emotions and PABs influence the leader in different ways. When emotions are triggered, they activate particular kinds of goal thoughts. Imagine, for example, not seeing your wallet or smartphone where you expected it to be. That would immediately trigger emotions like surprise and consternation (if not panic!), which in turn would activate a goal to see the missing item and have it in your possession. Emotions also influence – through feelings that range from gentle nudges to irresistible urges – which mentally activated goals get selected for actual goal pursuit. Emotions help us prioritize goal options by energizing certain thought patterns over others (“I won’t be able to think about anything else until I find my wallet”) and by preparing the body for particular kinds of action (“I can’t just sit here and do nothing!”).
Personal agency beliefs also participate in this “here and now” decision-making process (“OK, calm down, I’m good at finding things”). However, their unique strength is in situations where there is a need to reflect on available capabilities and resources before making a decision about whether to pursue (or to continue pursuing) a goal. Indeed, the primary role of PAB thinking is to provide the leader with a realistic assessment of what outcomes might be anticipated if a particular goal is pursued. It is important to maintain hope and persistence when a goal is in fact attainable (“I’m sure I can find my wallet if I carefully retrace my steps”). However, if goal pursuit would likely be a waste of time and energy – or perhaps even counterproductive – the leader needs to be advised accordingly (“I’m probably not going to be able to find my wallet, so I better start calling my credit card companies ASAP!”).
Motivational science took on a fresh new look when it began to recognize the central role that these self-directive and self-regulatory influences play in human behavior and development. However, the tendency has been for motivational scholars to focus on one particular facet of motivation rather than looking at the integrated functioning of personal goals, emotions, and personal agency beliefs. This “one at a time” approach can help provide specialized knowledge about particular aspects of motivation, but it leaves a significant gap in terms of understanding how motivation naturally operates in the real world, where goals, emotions, and personal agency beliefs always work together as a leadership team.
To date, our field is characterized by theoretical fragmentation, with a multitude of constructs denoting similar phenomena … and theories that are largely complementary but lack integration. Fragmentation hinders not only the development of a cumulative science of motivation and emotion but also our communication with policy-makers and practitioners.
To address the need to not only “zoom in” on specific motivational elements, but also to “zoom out” to see broader motivational patterns, co-author Martin Ford developed Motivational Systems Theory (MST) during his professorial career at Stanford University. MST is grounded in a comprehensive, evidence-based theory of human behavior and development called the Living Systems Framework (LSF), which was developed in the 1980s by Donald Ford (Martin’s father) to help guide human development scholars and practitioners in interdisciplinary fields of research and practice. That is not to say that Motivational Systems Theory was developed primarily as an academic exercise. Indeed, the initial impetus for developing MST was more practical than theoretical. Due to a new teaching assignment, Ford found himself struggling to help his doctoral students make sense of the hodge-podge of motivation theories that had suddenly sprung up in the 1970s and 1980s, after it had become acceptable to take mental phenomena such as goal thoughts, emotional triggers, and self-evaluations seriously. What was clearly needed was some way to think about motivation that was simultaneously simpler yet more comprehensive – in other words, more systematic.
MST’s ability to respectfully “stand on the shoulders of giants” and to consolidate their scientific contributions within a coherent framework paved the way for efforts to use MST to guide research and intervention in a variety of applied fields of study. For example, during his executive training directorship at a large Fortune 50 corporation, co-author Peyton Smith was impressed with the inclusive nature of MST and its applicability to real-world problems, and subsequently used it as the foundation for an international leadership program he developed and implemented on five different continents.
When You Stand on the Shoulders of Giants, You See More
There are a number of advantages to using an integrative systems model to understand motivation and optimal functioning. Perhaps the most obvious is the capacity of such models to be thorough and complete in their coverage of relevant phenomena. For example, while some motivation theories focus on just one or two categories of goal content (e.g., equity theory, self-worth theory, achievement motivation theory), MST includes a comprehensive goal taxonomy that covers twenty-four fundamentally distinct goal themes. Even Reference MaslowMaslow’s (1954) popular needs hierarchy only covers a fraction of this motivational “road map.”
MST is also unique with respect to its emphasis on the ubiquitous importance of emotions in motivational patterns. Although respect for the role that emotion-regulation processes play in motivation and optimal functioning is growing (e.g., Reference GrossGross, 2015; Reference Harley, Pekrun, Taxer and GrossHarley et al., 2019; Reference Pekrun, Liem and McInerneyPekrun, 2018; Reference ThompsonThompson, 2011), emotions are still regarded by many scholars as hard to pin down in a scientific way. Although they are generally not left out of motivation theories completely – emotions are hard to ignore when trying to understand why people do what they do! – it is evident that there has been less emphasis on emotions than on expectancies, beliefs, goals, and values in mainstream motivational theorizing.
In short, there has been a fundamental imbalance in the scientific literature when it comes to understanding the role and significance of thoughts and emotions in human motivation. MST helps restore the proper balance.
Similarly, MST is one of the few scientific theories that places as much weight on context beliefs (beliefs about environmental responsiveness) as on capability beliefs (beliefs about personal competence) when trying to understand the choices people make. That is a direct result of the emphasis in systems models on seeing the environment as an infused element within a person’s functioning. This contextual orientation helps combat the tendency to look at motivation in overly narrow or individualistic terms. The MST approach to self-direction is a genuinely “systems” way of thinking in which the person is embedded in the environment and the environment is embedded within the person (Reference FordD. Ford, 1987/2019; Reference Ford and LernerD. Ford & Lerner, 1992; Reference McNulty and FinchamMcNulty & Fincham, 2012; Reference Vondracek, Ford and PorfeliVondracek et al., 2014).
The dynamics of motivation do not rest solely within the organism. Nor do they live solely in the situations that may trigger them. Instead, motivations work within the interplay between organism and situation …. The unit of analysis, the “thing” to pay attention to directly, is the human-environment system, the dynamic that arises as organism and situation “play” or influence one another to create what comes next.
Motivation and Leadership
Although our motivational thoughts and feelings are anchored in human biology, both at the neurological level and through gene–culture coevolution, motivation is fundamentally a psychological phenomenon. It is therefore only natural that we would focus much of this book on the internal workings of the human mind (including the vast amount of mental activity that occurs outside of awareness). However, because our ultimate purpose is to better understand how motivation can promote optimal functioning – both at the everyday level and in terms of broader developmental pathways – we take the Motivating Others part of our book title very seriously. Humans are social animals who are designed to live and work in groups and in collaboration with other individuals. In many of these settings there is a need for people to carry out, at an interpersonal or collective level, the same leadership functions fulfilled by personal goals, emotions, and personal agency beliefs at the individual level. What that means conceptually is that, with just a little bit of tweaking and translating, Motivational Systems Theory can also serve as a theory of effective leadership – especially when viewed through the lens of the Thriving with Social Purpose (TSP) framework we designed to represent “motivation at its best.” In simple terms, leadership is fundamentally about motivating others.
Consistent with this way of thinking, our view of leadership is much broader than the stereotypical image of a CEO or elected official. In effect, a leader is anyone in a role that includes motivating others as a systematic part of what they must do to succeed. That of course includes chief executives, commanding officers, and others at the top of an organization chart. But our concept of leadership also includes parents, teachers, counselors, coaches, managers, and supervisors. It includes advocates, opinion leaders, and people who “market” ideas and products designed to improve people’s lives. Essentially, a leader is anyone who is committed to producing positive, enduring change in how other people function. And the best leaders are those who are effective in helping others progress toward optimal functioning in their own lives.
Another Thought Experiment
Now that we have clarified the rationale for the Motivating Others part of our book title, we can move to a second thought experiment. This one focuses on how you have impacted someone else’s motivation:
Imagine a time when you successfully motivated someone to make a significant change in their behavior – for example, investing more time and energy in an important activity or behaving in a more responsible or appropriate way. How did you approach this challenge? What did you say or do that was effective? How did you know the change was meaningful and lasting?
This thought experiment is a bit more complex than the first in that it asks for information not only about your own motives, but also about someone else’s internal thoughts and feelings, which can only be known through inference (e.g., based on how they act and the choices they make, or on what they say about their experience). Nevertheless, when people describe how they know that “real” change has occurred, they focus primarily on motivational themes, as follows.
1. The Individual’s Words and Actions (Especially Actions!) Clearly Demonstrate a Commitment to Change (Goal Theme)
The key to meaningful change is alignment of the desired behavior pattern with the individual’s personal goals. You cannot effectively motivate someone if you do not have some sense of what goals are important to them and how you might connect with those natural sources of direction and energy. In particular, you cannot motivate people by simply telling them what their personal goals should be (e.g., “I want you to be the best student in the class”; “I want you to stop taking me for granted”). By definition, a goal is not personal until it becomes psychologically “owned.” The individual does not have to share your reasons for wanting change to occur, but there does need to be some reason for accepting (and ultimately embracing) the change and maintaining it in your absence. That is why one essential element in motivating others is being able to skillfully and creatively connect valued behavior patterns (e.g., driving safely, practicing the piano, meeting a higher standard) to an individual’s existing repertoire of core personal goals. Recognizing the fundamental importance of making such connections, in Chapter 3 we will talk about methods and tools for identifying core personal goals in self and others.
2. The Individual’s Expressed Feelings Suggest That the Behavior Change Is Likely to Be Self-Sustaining (Emotion Theme)
As noted earlier, strong motivational patterns are virtually always infused with strong emotions. If someone makes a desired change but the effort is halfhearted (e.g., randomly ordering a low-calorie meal from time to time; offering to pitch in but then not actually contributing much work), meaningful change has probably not yet occurred. Conversely, if the energy level remains strong while behavior change efforts are being made, you can be confident that something good is happening. Positive emotions like enthusiasm and pride are particularly diagnostic when looking for indicators of self-sustaining behavior change, as we are naturally motivated to continue doing things that produce such emotions.
3. The Individual Appears to Feel Self-Confident and Supported in Their Efforts to Change (Personal Agency Belief Theme)
Change can be hard. It takes a strong commitment and a lot of energy to disrupt an established pattern, replace it with something new, and then make it stick. So, when you have been able to remove self-doubts or help someone feel at ease with a change, that is a very good sign. Yet, to be able to do this, you will first need to establish a sense of trust by showing that you have the person’s best interests at heart. Being able to trust that someone trying to influence you will be responsive and helpful (e.g., by providing effective coaching, social-emotional support, or essential resources) removes a potentially huge motivational barrier.
Now let’s back up a step to the other part of our second thought experiment. How did you approach the challenge of trying to motivate someone to make a significant change in their behavior?
When people are asked to address this question in the context of long-term success (i.e., when sustainable improvement has occurred rather than just an expedient, temporary change), their responses are highly congruent with MST principles for motivating others (Reference FordM. Ford, 1992; Reference Ford and SmithM. Ford & Smith, 2007). Prominent themes include:
1. Visioning of a Better Future and a Strong Belief in the Attainability of That Desired Outcome
These goal-defining and goal-strengthening qualities are often at the heart of successful efforts to motivate others. In effect, the person functioning as the change agent, or “leader” of the change process, is seeking to facilitate optimal functioning in others by engaging in the same kind of positive, approach-oriented thinking that is characteristic of effective efforts to improve the leader’s own functioning. There is a clear, compelling goal that the leader effectively communicates by finding some way to “attach” that goal to others’ personal goals. The leader also inspires persistence and creativity by encouraging others to believe that they have the ability and opportunity to be successful. In many cases it appears that much of a leader’s success is attributable to the infectious nature of the leader’s own motivational characteristics.
2. Emphasizing Facilitation Rather than Direct Control
There is no doubt that motivation by fear (e.g., through intimidation, threats, or coercive contingencies) can influence behavior in the moment. However, such tactics are not only notoriously ineffective in producing sustainable change; they can also backfire by reducing trust, undermining commitment to change, and redirecting available energy to avoidance goals. Consequently, the more reliable pathway to meaningful change is to try to create circumstances that are emotionally inviting and clearly aligned with the personal goals of those you seek to influence. In other words, you need to respect the fact that people are naturally self-directed. If, for example, you tell someone “this is for your own good” without explanation, that message will probably feel inauthentic and uncaring. Even worse, the person is likely to feel that you are trying to control them and react in a defensive or oppositional way (e.g., “What you mean is that it’s good for YOU!”). Rather than emphasizing the outcomes you want, it is far more effective to focus – in an informative rather than controlling way (Reference Deci and RyanDeci & Ryan, 1985; Reference Ryan and DeciRyan & Deci, 2018) – on outcomes that are meaningful to the person you seek to influence. Even if those outcomes are negative (e.g., loss of privileges or possible reputational damage), people will generally be much more receptive to suggestions and honest explanations than to threats and manipulations.
Sometimes it is hard to explain the personal relevance of a motivational message because of the young age of the recipient or because of the novelty or complexity of the desired outcome (e.g., try explaining the need for people to reduce their “carbon footprint” to someone unfamiliar with that concept). In cases where goal alignment is not readily apparent or cannot be easily understood, trust in the individual delivering the message is paramount. That is why parenting experts, coaching professionals, and political strategists place so much emphasis on relationships as a foundation for motivating others. If you feel that someone is just telling you what to do for their own purposes, your response is likely to be quite different than if you believe that person is sincerely trying to help you achieve what is important to you and to others you care about (Reference GrantGrant, 2013).
3. Establishing an Emotional Connection
Attempts to motivate others tend not to proceed efficiently when individuals are treated impersonally (i.e., as if they were objects rather than people). That is why concepts like emotional climate, social-emotional support, and empathy have received so much attention in the behavior change literature, and why they are frequently mentioned as factors contributing to successful efforts to motivate others. Empathy is a particularly powerful concept because it combines concern for others with efforts to understand others’ perspectives and feelings (including their motivational states). That is an empowering combination for those seeking to motivate others.
4. Focusing on Helping Goals
When people tell us about their most successful attempts to motivate others, they naturally gravitate to examples where, in terms of their own personal goals, they felt a strong desire or obligation to help others. Such goals are not necessarily the only motives guiding their change efforts, but they do tend to be among the most salient themes in their goal descriptions. Evidently there is something uniquely powerful about intentionally and effectively promoting the welfare of others in meaningful ways, whether those “others” are your children, your students, your clients, or humanity in general. And the motivational impact is not just within the leader. People respond most favorably to leaders whose intentions are perceived to be centered on helping their followers. When we believe that our leaders are genuinely inclined to put the interests of others above their own self-interest, we gravitate to them emotionally, feel a sense of trust and security, and want to align our own goal pursuits with the goals they are advocating.
Thriving with Social Purpose
The growing repository of stories about “motivation at its best” encouraged us to create an elaboration on Motivational Systems Theory that focused specifically on motivation and optimal functioning. We had come to realize that these rich descriptions of real-life triumphs were helping us understand the natural processes underlying efforts to motivate self and others. We were also guided by MST-inspired research studies that focused on motivational profiles of people widely regarded by their peers as being unusually competent, caring, or responsible (M. Reference Ford, Juvonen and WentzelFord, 1996; Reference Ford, Wentzel, Wood, Stevens and SiesfeldM. Ford et al., 1989). In addition, we were informed by a parallel stream of theory and research organized under the label “positive psychology” that gained substantial momentum during the late 1990s and 2000s (Reference Seligman and CsikszentmihalyiSeligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Reference Snyder and LopezSnyder & Lopez, 2002, Reference Snyder and Lopez2009). Positive psychology has focused much of its attention on motivation-related themes, including hope, optimism, resilience, positive emotions, and the high-functioning experience of “flow” (Reference CsikszentmihalyiCsikszentmihalyi, 1991, Reference Csikszentmihalyi2003). We liberally cite the work of several of positive psychology’s intellectual leaders in this book.
Thriving with Social Purpose (TSP) is the phrase we have selected to summarize the broad motivational approach to life that seems to be most reliably associated with optimal functioning in humans. It is difficult to summarize all of the concepts and evidence that went into building the TSP framework without first describing the foundation for that framework, which we lay out in the next three chapters. However, we can highlight here why we think this integrative theory of motivation and optimal functioning is important for anyone concerned with the challenge of motivating self and others. Here are some of the key features and outcomes associated with a TSP motivational pattern:
1. TSP Is a Natural Way of Being
Humans, like so many other animals, are a social species. We innately seek relationships, not only for their own rewards, but also because they facilitate other goal pursuits. Researchers studying motivation in infants, for example, have converged on the conclusion that humans are born with a natural desire to explore, learn, and bond with others. Newborns look, reach, listen, and cry as they try to acquire informational and material resources and influence their social environment. They do not need to be taught to pursue goals in an active, self-directed way (as every new parent soon learns!). They do not need to be taught to be concerned about others or to have inclinations to help and cooperate with others (Reference HrdyHrdy, 2009; Reference KeltnerKeltner, 2009; Reference TomaselloTomasello, 2009). These innate motivational qualities of course need to be nurtured and cultivated, just as our physical and intellectual capabilities need to be developed and refined in the course of our daily lives. But it is not necessary to go against basic human nature to motivate yourself or others to pursue a goal, or to have some sense of social purpose. You just need to take the natural gifts you were born with and make the most of them, while also remaining alert to those who might undermine your TSP qualities. As Mae Jemison, the first African American woman to travel in space wisely advised: “I was born motivated, like you all were … [but beware] – people try to demotivate you.”
2. TSP Enables Imagination and Creativity to Flourish
Life is filled with ups and downs and bumps and bruises. Sometimes it is quite adaptive to be cautious and detached. Nor is it possible to effectively pursue every goal we might envision. We have limited energy resources that can be easily depleted under conditions of uncertainty and challenge, especially when we are not sleeping or eating well or when there are too many stressful events going on in our lives at the same time. Nevertheless, when our natural inclination – or what we like to call our “home page” motivational orientation – is to actively pursue the goals that capture our attention and imagination with confidence, tenacity, and productive energy, our capacity for creativity and positive change is maximized. Moreover, when we focus not just on ourselves but also on the broader impact of our actions for others, our thinking is more open-minded and innovative.
3. TSP Contributes to Health, Well-Being, and Longevity
It makes sense that if we live our lives in ways that are consistent with how we are naturally designed to function, we will feel better and live longer. And indeed, there is ample and growing evidence to support this hypothesis. One source of evidence is the vast scientific literature on stress, which pushes people toward non-TSP modes of functioning (e.g., avoidance, defensiveness, self-absorption). Chronic, energy-depleting stress is consistently associated with a wide variety of emotional and physical health problems (Reference ThoitsThoits, 2010). Conversely, there is growing evidence that stress reduction and enhanced life meaning are associated with many health benefits (Reference Czekierda, Banik, Park and LuszczynskaCzekierda et al., 2017; Reference Grossman, Niemann, Schmidt and WalachGrossman et al., 2004; Reference Khoury, Sharma, Rush and FournierKhoury et al., 2015). There is also considerable evidence that dispositional optimism and interpersonal trust are associated with good health outcomes (Reference Barefoot, Maynard, Beckham, Brummett, Hooker and SieglerBarefoot et al., 1998; Reference Scheier and CarverScheier & Carver, 2018). Another source of evidence for the hypothesis that “TSP is good for you” is research linking altruism and social bonding to a wide spectrum of indicators related to well-being, including longevity (Reference PostPost, 2005, Reference Post2007; Reference Ryff and SingerRyff & Singer, 2001). Evidently, adopting habits of living and working that are at odds with our evolutionary heritage is not a winning strategy when it comes to long-term health and survival.
4. Life Meaning Flows Naturally from TSP Experiences
Thriving with Social Purpose is a way of approaching life’s opportunities and challenges that yields many benefits. It helps people progress effectively toward the goals that matter most to them. It enables people to pursue goals in ways that support rather than jeopardize their emotional and physical health. It also increases people’s ability to help others lead better lives. However, there is another impact of TSP that, in effect, takes all of these benefits to another level – a level that is an integral part of our concept of optimal functioning. As we will explain in Chapter 7 when we introduce the Thriving with Social Purpose Theory of Life Meaning, TSP contributes directly to a sense that “life is worth living.” This psychological experience is difficult to engineer, and yet it is a natural consequence of TSP modes of functioning. That is an important benefit not only for individuals with respect to their own goal pursuits, but also for leaders who may sometimes wonder if the rigors and responsibilities associated with their leadership roles (e.g., as parents, teachers, supervisors, or executives) are really “worth it.” For those guided by a TSP motivational orientation, the nearly universal response is “absolutely!”
5. Followers Respond Best to Leaders with TSP Qualities
Those used to thinking of “leaders” as people who can easily make things happen because they have a lot of power (due to money, position, or weapons) may find it hard to associate TSP motivational patterns (especially the social purpose component) with images of commanding officers and ruthless chief executives. But from our broader perspective of leadership, where leaders generally must first earn the trust and respect of followers before they can have much long-term impact, TSP is an indispensable foundation for effective leadership. This is consistent with the idea that the individuals most likely to be able to make good things happen in leadership roles are those with strong, clear goals; robust personal agency beliefs; a positive and balanced emotional outlook; and authentic concern for others’ well-being. We are hardwired to want to respond cooperatively and enthusiastically to people who display these kinds of qualities.
Equipoise
As we will explain in Chapter 2, humans evolved in variable, changing environments. As a result, a “one size fits all” solution is not adaptive, nor is that the way we are designed. To function effectively, we need to be versatile. We need a diverse repertoire of strategies and possibilities. Like a sailor setting and resetting her sails to match the shifting winds, we need to be able to balance and flexibly adjust our decisions and actions to the multiple forces involved in the ever-shifting milieu of goal pursuit.
This design principle, which we call equipoise (as explained in Chapter 4), is an essential part of our TSP conceptual framework, as it helps clarify the nature of our hypothesized connection between TSP and optimal functioning. Specifically, we are not proposing that TSP is appropriate for all circumstances or the only pathway to success in any given situation. Flexibility is essential for optimal functioning! In some circumstances it may make perfect sense, for example, to be avoidant, pessimistic, or mistrustful. Rather, we are proposing that, with few exceptions, TSP provides the most natural – and thus the most reliably productive – “home page” motivational orientation over the long haul. Indeed, when you later read about the specific components composing the TSP motivational pattern, you will see that the concept of equipoise is deeply embedded within each element in the TSP framework.
Let the Journey Begin!
Motivation is a complex but inherently intriguing topic. Our objective is to share with you what we have learned about motivation over the years and to prepare you to apply that knowledge to the opportunities and challenges you face in your personal and professional goal pursuits. When you finish reading and reflecting on the contents of this book, you will appreciate the significance of motivation in people’s lives and the many benefits of striving for goal–life alignment and TSP patterns of functioning. You will have new conceptual and practical tools for strengthening motivation, enhancing effectiveness, and increasing life meaning in yourself and others. And you will understand why TSP leaders are so effective in attracting followers and motivating them to align their goals around a shared purpose.
First, though, we must acquaint you with the scientific foundation that makes these insights possible. Let’s start our journey by looking at how self-direction evolved from its simple beginnings in early life forms to its most elaborated expression (to date) in human motivational systems.
