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Index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2025

Shantel A. George
Shantel A. George
Affiliation:
University of Glasgow

Information

Type
Chapter
Information
The Yoruba Are on a Rock
Recaptured Africans and the Orisas of Grenada
 , pp. 379 - 392
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2025

Index

Page number in italics refers to figure and followed by “n” refers to footnote.

Abeokuta, 8
Abolition Act (1807)
African apprenticeship, 82–83, 151
African enlistment, 74, 82
unaffected slave ships, 38n18
Adams, Sugar (Nation Dance practitioner), 69
Adderley, Rosanne, 12–14, 16–17, 185, 259
Africa
homeland, 211, 213, 313, 319, 321. See also African world view
place of spiritual renewal, 321
spiritual authority, 211
African work, 220–221, 240, 267, 272
adherent numbers, 285
Africanisation, 18, 24, 234–241, 321
An African work Ceremony in Levera, 2
animal sacrifice, 287, 290–292
anti-obeah, 260
Carriacou, 10, 14, 57, 102–103, 246–247, 251–257, 274, 287, 297–299
Christian theology, 290–292
compared to Trinidad, 303–305
divergent practices, 286–287
divine revelation, 288–289, 294, 296–297, 306
egungun, 226–228, 341
egungun Parade, 342
Ewe influence, 221, 240
exorcism services (Carriacou), 14, 254–255
French Creole, 14–15, 18
Ifa Festival, 341–342
Indian influence, 244, 258
innovation, 288–295
kola nut divination, 222–224
legitimation, 17, 236, 299–301, 306, 336–340
making of, 9–10, 13–14, 16, 18–25, 34–35, 57, 103, 119, 162, 173, 214–312
Mr Devon offering up a fowl, 292
Nation Dance influence, 288
comparison with obeah, 339
origins, 1, 3, 7, 20, 103, 213, 216–217, 221, 228–232, 236–237
rejuvenation from Trinidad, 302–303
Roman Catholicism, 265–275, 294–295
Ms Little with Saint Mary, 271
salt avoidance, 292, 320–322
saraka, 322
Shango as descriptor, 235–236, 238–239, 246, 252–255, 275, 284, 288, 303, 328
Shango hair-cutting ritual, 102–103. See also dada hair
variability in practice, 288, 290
Yorubisation, 31, 216, 232–235, 241, 341
African world view, 71
salt avoidance, 17–18, 52, 59–60, 255, 286, 292, 314, 317–327, 335. See also African work; Indian indentured labourers; Nation Dance: saraka
Agutoré (recaptured African, Louise Fredericke), 132–134, 160
Aja peoples, 216, 247
enslaved Africans, 65
Aja-Fon peoples, 119
Akan peoples, 120
Cudjoe of Jamaica, 57
enslaved Africans, 56, 57n121, 68
etymology of obeah, 58
Koromanti nation. See Nation Dance
Nanny of Jamaica, 68
recaptured Africans, 120, 144
Akbar (emigrant ship)
James Rose (seized slave ship), 124
settlement of Africans, 330–331
Alade (recaptured African, Louise Fredericke), 139
Alert, HMS, 114
Ali (recaptured African, Negrinha), 110
Allai (recaptured African, Louise Fredericke), 134
Amosu (recaptured African), 217
Andall, Ella (African work practitioner), 302, 304
Andrew, Benedict (recaptured African descendant), 210, 217–218, 222–223, 225–226, 268, 317
Benedict Andrew, 222
Anglican Church, 72
and African work, 270
baptism of Africans, 172–173
St Helena, 92–93
clergy
and African work, 270
and French Creole, 186, 267
conversion of Africans, 173, 183–184
religious instruction
of Africans, 173–174, 182
during slavery, 70–71
schools for African children, 174–175
Ann, Mother (Spiritual Baptist practitioner), 287, 289
Annie, Mother (African work and Spiritual Baptist practitioner), 244, 244, 257, 289
Antoine, Ms (recaptured African descendant), 226
Apomu, 4
apprenticeship system (1834–8), 7, 43–46, 83, 149, 164–165, 208
Arawakan-speakers, 37
Asante kingdom, 64, 68, 100
Ashie-Nikoi, Edwina, 58, 66, 68
Athletoe (emigrant ship)
Indian and African interaction, 93
mortality, 93
separation of Africans, 146
shipmate bonds, 165–172
Atlantic (emigrant ship)
Africans indentured (Carriacou), 198–199
arrival, 129–130
California (seized slave ship), 115–116, 118
description of Africans, 135
distribution of Africans, 145, 157–158
ethnic origins of Africans, 115–118, 127, 129–130
linguistic diversity, 157–158, 247–248
proportion of males, 104
recording of names, 111
resistance to emigrate, 115
understanding of contracts, 157–158
Baillie’s Bacolet Estate, St David, 43–45, 47, 49, 208
application for emancipados, 83–84
plans to indenture Europeans, 96–97
recaptured Africans, 84, 175, 205
Balogun, Ogun (Housten) (recaptured African), 326
Banda peoples (enslaved Africans), 64n169
Banda nation. See Nation Dance
Barbados, migration to Grenada, 99, 281
Barbara Campbell (emigrant ship)
description, 135
ill health of Africans, 91, 136
mortality, 91, 136
Bell, Hesketh
African work, 33–37, 69, 219, 258, 265, 271–273, 279, 307
godparenting system, 183
Nation Dance, 54–55
obeah, 64
‘superstitions’ of Africans, 25, 51
Benguela, 126
Big Drum. See Nation Dance
Bight of Benin, 68
ethnic groups, 61, 68, 107, 112, 116–123, 128, 324. See also Aja peoples; Aja-Fon peoples; Chamba peoples (enslaved Africans); Ewe peoples; Gbe-speaking peoples; Yoruba peoples
Great Popo, 141, 144
Lagos, 118
British annexation, 116
recaptured Africans, 111, 117–119, 121, 144
Little Popo/Aného, 117, 141, 144
recaptured Africans, 119–120, 144, 247
number of males, 104
Ouidah, 111, 115–119, 144
recaptured Africans, 111, 118
significance, 65, 69, 128, 247
specific ships departing. See Atlantic (emigrant ship): California (seized slave ship); Brandon (emigrant ship): Conquistador (seized slave ship); Florida (seized slave ship); Phoenix (seized slave ship); Louise Fredericke (emigrant ship): Sierra del Pilar (seized slave ship)
Bight of Biafra
ethnic groups, 58, 67–68, 107, 111–112, 127. See also Ibibio peoples; Igbo peoples
River Brass, 111–112
significance, 58, 67–68
specific ships departing. See Clarendon (emigrant ship): Jacinto (seized slave ship)
Black Bay Estate, St John, 183, 206
Bondo society, 109
Borno, 119
Brandon (emigrant ship)
Conquistador (seized slave ship), 112–114
distribution of Africans, 145
ethnic origins of Africans, 112–115, 117, 127, 324
interpreters, 137–138
marital aspirations of women, 139
proportion
of children, 105
of males, 104
of mature adults, 106
recording of names, 27
reindenture of children, 151–152
resistance to emigrate, 112–113
Brazil
Anglo-Portuguese treaty, 77
coffee industry, 123
Rio de Janeiro
Mixed Commission Court, 77
recaptured African registers, 125
seized slave ships, 74, 112, 115
slave trade, 76, 87, 98–99, 105
Slave Trade Act 1845, 90
suppression, 99, 152
sugar industry, 98, 189
West Central Africans, 126, 268
World Conference on Orisa Traditions and Culture, 337
Yoruba peoples
Ijesha peoples, 217–218
‘Nago’ peoples, 123
Brima (recaptured African, Negrinha), 110
British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, 129
British Guiana
Indian indentured labourers, 94, 194
migration from Grenada, 156
recaptured Africans, 12, 84–85, 157, 316
Brizan, George, 39, 204
Butler, Uriah ‘Buzz’ (anti-colonial and trade union activist), 299–300
Buxton, Thomas, 78–79
Cabinda, 126
California (seized slave ship). See Atlantic (emigrant ship)
Candomblé, 23, 216–217, 232, 237, 320
comparison with Grenada, 305
Cape Verde Islands, 77, 100
Carib peoples. See Kalinago peoples
Carriacou
African work. See African work
decline of sugar, 246
inter-island migration, 8–9, 248–257, 297–299, 302. See also Eastern Caribbean Sea
Nation Dance. See Nation Dance
recaptured Africans, 247
settlement of Africans, 179–180
cassava, 48–49, 122, 135, 208
Celia (recaptured African, Negrinha), 109–110
Central Sudan, 62, 112, 118–119, 324
Ceres (emigrant ship)
ill health of Africans, 92, 136
marital aspirations of women, 139
mortality, 91–92
Chamba peoples (enslaved Africans), 68
Charles, Mrs (Spiritual Baptist practitioner), 298
Chinese indentured labourers, 100
British Caribbean, 77, 93
cultural influence. See Spiritual Baptist Faith
Christianity. See also specific denominations
instruction of Africans, 172–181
practised with African religions, 69, 181, 243, 254
West Africa, 266
Clarendon (emigrant ship)
description of Africans, 135
distribution of Africans, 145, 165–166
ethnic origins of Africans, 111–112, 117–118
family ties respected, 146
Jacinto (seized slave ship), 111
proportion of males, 104
recording of names, 111
resistance to emigrate, 111
shipmate bonds, 165–172
Clarke (recaptured African, Negrinha), 163–164
Clarke’s Court Estate, St George, 162–165
Clive, Miss (African work practitioner)
African work in Concord, 221
Anglican Church, 270
cardinal directionality, 224
genealogy, 58–59, 233
La Mode Africans, 228
Mesmerism-Shakerism charge, 282–283
Norman Paul, 246
Ogun calling, 215
Papa William, 226
Roman Catholicism, 270–271
Shango as descriptor, 235
‘Yarriba people’/’Yarriba dance’, 215, 229, 235, 239
cocoa industry, 39, 100–101, 154, 195
indentured labourers, 245–246
Indian indentured labourers, 95, 194
Madeiran indentured labourers, 98
métayage, 190. See also métayage system
recaptured Africans, 154, 188, 194, 198–199
Code Noir, 42
coffee industry, 39
Indian indentured labourers, 194
recaptured Africans, 188, 194
Colebrooke, William (Governor of Barbados)
African women and African soldiers, 139
Africans leaving estates, 196, 202
case of Houston, 170–172
character of Africans, 161
conversion of Africans, 178
education of African children, 180
French Creole, 176–177
religions of Africans, 181
religious instruction of Africans, 179
respecting family ties, 146–147
Collins, Merle, 60, 333
Concord Estate, St John, 183, 206
Conference Estate, St Andrew, 330
Congo River, 126, 331
Conquistador (seized slave ship). See Brandon (emigrant ship)
Consolidated Act (1874), 263
Consolidated Slave Act (1825), 42, 63, 70–71
Corinth Estate, St David, 207
Coromanti. See Akan peoples
cotton industry, 39, 154, 195, 246
Cox, Edward, 11, 122n94, 147
Cuba
abolition of slavery, 19
Havana
African interpreters, 138–139
Anglo-Spanish treaty (1835), 83, 107–108, 121
Mixed Commission Court, 77, 83, 121
recaptured African registers, 27, 120, 125, 132–133
recaptured Africans (emancipados), 83–84, 121–123, 132–133
shipmate bonds, 134–135
specific ships departing. See Louise Fredericke (emigrant ship)
seized slave ships, 74, 107, 116–117, 121–122, 124, 132
slave trade, 76, 87, 105
sugar industry, 98, 123, 189
suppression of slave trade, 3, 99
Daaga (Donald Stewart) (recaptured African), 141–143
dada hair, 102–103, 253–255
De Couteau, Elias (African work practitioner), 253–254, 287
De Couteau’s dada hair, 253
Decker, Mama (recaptured African), 294
DeLaurence Company, 263, 283, 296, 309–311
Domingues da Silva, Daniel B., 125
Dominica, 38
recaptured Africans, 140–141, 143
drumming
enslaved uprisings, 53–54
prohibition, 53–54, 261–263
Eastern Caribbean Sea
Africanising space, 23–24, 221, 228, 240, 248–257, 302–303, 341
circuits of migration, 8–9, 14, 31, 51, 57, 103, 197–198, 228, 244–245, 248–258, 280–282, 295–312, 341–344
exchange of religious ideas, 8–9, 14, 24–25, 31, 57, 103, 228, 244–245, 248–258, 280–282, 289, 295–312, 340–344
Map of the Lesser Antilles (1889), 249
movement of goods, 250, 311
overlooked regional zone, 24
site of difference, 25, 303–305, 336–340
Edo peoples, 220
Edward (recaptured African), 202
Efik peoples (enslaved Africans)
linguistic legacies, 65, 306n133
Efuyumicá (recaptured African, Louise Fredericke), 134
Elder, Jacob D., 251
Elegba/Legba/Eshu (orisa), 224–225
Eltis, David, 144
Emancipation Act (1833), 43, 149–150, 164, 204. See also apprenticeship system (1834–8)
compensation for enslavers, 43, 77, 204–206
English indentured labourers, 96
enslaved Africans
ethnic origins, 51–69, 72–73, 127, 247
meanings of freedom, 41–42, 44–51
Muslims, 60–62
North America, 93
numbers trafficked, 38
resistance, 39–51
European indentured labourers. See also English indentured labourers; German indentured labourers; Madeiran indentured labourers; Scottish indentured labourers
British Caribbean, 93
Ewe peoples, 216, 247
enslaved Africans, 65
Falcon, HMS, 124
Fantee peoples, 100
farine (farina). See cassava
Fédon rebellion, 41, 54, 57
Felix, Mark (recaptured African descendant), 209–210, 222, 224–226
Fema (recaptured African, Negrinha), 110
Fleary, Winston (Nation Dance practitioner), 66
Floan, Mother (Spiritual Baptist practitioner), 285, 299
Florida (seized slave ship)
African baptisms, 173
Africans apprenticed, 84, 150
Africans enlisted, 117, 140
capture, 117
description of Africans, 132
ethnic origins of Africans, 118, 144
mortality, 132
proportion of males, 104
Fon peoples, 216, 220–221, 247
enslaved Africans, 65
recaptured Africans, 65
Fortune, May (Nation Dance practitioner), 69
Foumbie (recaptured African, Negrinha), 163–164
Franklyn, David, 8, 203n75, 338
French colonial rule, 38
French Creole, 15, 69–72, 176–177, 186, 177n80, 267, 319. See also African work; Nation Dance; recaptured Africans
Roman Catholicism, 42, 69–72. See also Code Noir; African work
French Creole. See French colonial rule
French Revolution, 41
Friday (recaptured African descendant), 199–200
Fula peoples (recaptured Africans), 108
Ga-Adangme peoples, 120
recaptured Africans, 144
Gairy, Eric, 337–340
Ganah (Tom Sutherland) (recaptured African, Negrinha), 163–164
Garifuna peoples, 24
Gbanabom (recaptured African, Negrinha), 109
Gbe-speaking peoples, 118, 120, 216, 266. See also Aja peoples; Ewe peoples; Fon peoples
enslaved Africans, 65, 247
recaptured Africans, 144
Sierra Leone, 114
German indentured labourers, 96
Gilchrist (estate manager), 163–165
Gold Coast, 120. See also Akan peoples
enslaved Africans, 56–57, 64
ethnic groups, 107
recaptured Africans, 68, 144
Grand Bay Estate, Carriacou, 137, 157
Grand Etang Lake, 272
Great Bacolet Estate, St Andrew, 205
Great Britain
approval of indentured immigration scheme, 75
Colonial Land and Emigration Commission (CLEC), 85
colonial rule, 38, 338
opponents of African immigration, 80–82
profit from illegal slave trade, 74–75
Royal Navy West Africa Squadron, 2, 5, 74, 77, 83, 90, 98, 114, 120, 124, 138, 330
slave trade treaties, 77. See also specific countries
supporters of African immigration scheme, 78–80
Grebo peoples (recaptured Africans), 109
Griffith, Elton Elder (Spiritual Baptist practitioner), 300–301
Growler, HMS, 87, 157
Gur-speakers, 68
Haitian Revolution, 41
Haitian Vodun, 28n100, 36n12, 216, 224, 254, 268–269, 271, 294, 319
Harford Village, St Andrew, 328
Hausa peoples, 107, 112, 119, 235
recaptured Africans, 113, 116, 127
Trinidad, 14
Havana. See Cuba
Henry, Frances, 236, 302, 304, 336
Herskovits, Melville, 20, 230, 236, 305
Hill, Donald R.
African work, 251–252, 254–256, 298
Nation Dance, 68
Hinduism, 181, 242, 269, 307n136, 309
Honduras, 24, 41
Hosay. See Indian indentured labourers
Houston (recaptured African, Clarendon), 167–172, 326
Hucks, Tracey E., 13, 62, 259–260
human flight. See African world view
Ibibio peoples, 67
Calabar peoples
recaptured Africans (Sierra Leone), 114
enslaved Africans
linguistic legacies, 65, 306n133
etymology of obeah, 68
Moko nation. See Nation Dance
Moko peoples
enslaved Africans, 67–68
recaptured Africans (Sierra Leone), 114
Ifatokie, Iya Universal Empress (African work and Spiritual Baptist practitioner), 265, 341
Ife, 4, 236
Igbo peoples
enslaved Africans, 51, 58, 68
linguistic legacies, 65
Igbo nation. See Nation Dance
recaptured Africans, 112
British Caribbean, 127
Sierra Leone, 114
St Simons Island, Georgia, 317
Ijeshaland/Ijesha kingdom, 216–218, 220, 227–228. See also Yoruba peoples
Ilesha (capital), 217–218
Ilorin, 4, 218
independent villages
Black Bay, St John, 203, 203n75, 206
Concord, St John, 203, 203n75, 206, 219–221, 322, 325
Conference, St Andrew, 203, 203n75, 205–206
formerly enslaved, 49–50
La Mode, St Patrick, 203, 203n75, 206–207, 214–215, 226, 228
La Poterie, St Andrew, 60, 203, 203n75, 205, 325
Laura, St David, 203, 203n75, 207
liberated African villages, 202
Munich, St Andrew, 49, 203–205, 203n75, 208–213, 217–218, 221–222, 224–228, 239, 252–253, 268, 303, 306, 341
Home of the Cassava Producers, 209
recaptured Africans, 188–189, 203n75, 213, 215, 229–231, 243, 327–328
Rose Hill, St Patrick, 203, 203n75
Indian indentured labourers
African Grenadian godparents, 183
African work. See African work: Indian influence
British Caribbean and Mauritius, 93–94
cultural impact (Trinidad and Tobago), 340
Hosay, 242, 243n4
immigration
resurgence, 99
Indian Mutiny (1857), 94–95
length of indentureship, 96
mortality, 94–95
provision ground cultivation, 156
repatriation, 96, 156–157
salt avoidance, 326
Islam, 119, 242, 266, 327, 341. See also enslaved Africans: Muslims; recaptured Africans: Muslims
Jacinto (seized slave ship). See Clarendon (emigrant ship)
Jamaica
African work, 15
maroons, 57, 68
recaptured Africans, 12, 15–16, 85, 157, 316
Tacky’s revolt (1760), 54
James Rose (seized slave ship). See Akbar (emigrant ship)
Kalinago peoples, 24, 37–38, 38n18, 41, 65, 199–201
Kalinago teenager, 200
Kele tradition, 216
Kema (recaptured African, Negrinha), 109
Kikongo peoples, 125. See also Kongo peoples
Kimbundu peoples, 125–126
Kissi peoples (recaptured Africans), 109
Kongo cosmology, 319–320
Kongo kingdom, 125, 266
Kongo peoples
‘Congo cult’, 165, 233
Congo designation, 165
enslaved Africans, 66, 125
ethnic-based communities, 21, 328
Kongo nation. See Nation Dance
recaptured Africans, 116, 328–331
Sierra Leone, 113
St Helena, 126
Trinidad, 14
Kono peoples (recaptured Africans), 108
Koromanti. See Akan peoples
Koso peoples. See Mende peoples
Kpelle peoples (recaptured Africans), 109
Kru peoples, 87, 137–138, 157
Kumina, 15, 216, 318
La Digue, St Andrew (village), 333–334
La Fortune Estate, St Patrick, 7, 206–207
La Poterie Estate, St Andrew, 205
Langdon, John (recaptured African), 313, 327
Levera, St Patrick (village), 1, 7, 322
Levera Estate, St Patrick, 7
liberated Africans. See recaptured Africans
Liberia, 87, 137, 266
Limba peoples (recaptured Africans), 109
Loko peoples (recaptured Africans), 109
Loma peoples (recaptured Africans), 109
Lomax, Alan, 1, 69, 224, 305
lougarou, 318
Louise Fredericke (emigrant ship), 121–123
contracts for Africans, 151
distribution of Africans, 83, 145
ethnic origins of Africans, 122–123, 232
marital aspirations of women, 138–139
mortality, 132–134
proportion
of children, 105
males, 122
psychological condition of Africans, 132–134
shipmate bonds, 134–135
Sierra del Pilar (seized slave ship), 121–123, 133, 232
capture, 121
recording of names, 27
treatment of Africans, 122
Lower Conference Estate, St Andrew, 205–206
Lum, Kenneth A., 302, 304
Madeiran indentured labourers, 97–98
descendants in whaling industry, 201
provision ground cultivation, 98
Maidstone (emigrant ship), 94
Manding/Mandingo peoples
enslaved Africans, 61–62, 324
introduction of saraka, 61
recaptured Africans, 109, 163
Marli Estate, St Patrick, 206–207
Maroons, 41
Jamaica, 41, 57, 68
Suriname, 19, 319
Mary, Peters (recaptured African descendant), 326–327
Master and Servant Acts, 150, 170
Matory, J. Lorand, 23, 269
Matree, Anne (recaptured African), 202
Mawee (Maurice Ogston) (recaptured African), 141–144
McDaniel, Lorna, 52, 55, 58–59, 64–65, 247, 251, 255, 317
McQueen, Christine (recaptured African descendant and African work and Spiritual Baptist practitioner), 7, 257, 273–275, 294, 310, 321–322, 338
McQueen, Lena (African work practitioner and recaptured African descendant), 1–2
McQueen, Robert (estate manager), 168, 171
Medalin, Mother (African work, Spiritual Baptist and Nation Dance practitioner), 257, 286
memory
collective memory, 314, 328
homeland. See also Africa; African world view
selective and partial, 313
Mende peoples, 109, 163
recaptured Africans, 108, 110, 114–116, 127
Sierra Leone, 114
métayage system, 76–77, 189–191
Miller, Joseph, 123–125
Mintz, Sidney, 19–20, 172, 231
missionaries. See also Wesleyan Methodist church
African immigration, 75, 81–82, 148
Sierra Leone, 6, 89–90
proselytisation
among enslaved, 71
among Indian labourers, 307
Morne Delice Estate, St David, 207
Morne Fendue Estate, St Patrick, 206–207
Mount Pleasant Estate, Carriacou, 157
Mount Rose Estate, St Patrick, 170
Moyah, St Andrew (village), 35, 289, 331
Munich Estate, St Andrew, 204
Muslim rebellion, 4
Mustakeem, Sowande’, 133–134
Nation Dance, 9–10, 51–61, 102–103
absence of Yoruba nation, 69, 73
Arada nation, 58, 64–65, 254
Banda nation, 64
Beg Pardon songs, 52, 57, 59, 102, 256
cardinal directionality, 224
Chamba nation, 68
Christian influence, 69
colonial description, 52, 54–56
decline on mainland Grenada, 10, 245–246
dialogue with African work, 10, 14, 251–252
exorcism, 65, 68, 254–255
Fon influence, 65
French Creole, 52
historical archive, 10
historical scholarship, 9
Ibo-Coromanty nation, 59, 233
Ibo-Manding nation, 59, 233
Igbo nation, 58–59, 233
inclusion of Yoruba nation, 102–103, 256
Indian influence, 257–258
Kongo nation, 65–66
Koromanti nation, 56–58
Manding nation, 61
Moko nation, 67–68
Parents’ Plate, 59–60, 102, 255, 288
saraka, 52, 59–60, 69, 102, 256
augmented by recaptured Africans, 62
Christian influence, 69
origins, 60–61, 64
salt avoidance, 324
Temne nation, 66–67
Trinidad, 251
Yoruba influence, 248–251. See also African work
Negrinha (seized slave ship)
African baptisms, 173
Africans apprenticed, 150
Africans enlisted. See West India Regiments, 1st WIR
biographical details of Africans, 109–110
capture, 107–108
description of Africans, 131
distribution of Africans, 145
enslaved Temne, 67
ethnic origins of Africans, 108–109
mortality, 107, 131
proportion
of children, 105
of mature adults, 105
recording of names, 27
New Hampshire Estate, St George, 42
Noel, Archbishop John (Spiritual Baptist practitioner), 299
Northrup, David, 237, 239
Nupe, 119
Nupe peoples, 119
obeah, 62–64, 243, 267
African immigration, 82
definition, 34
enslaved resistance, 34, 62, 258–259
Eric Gairy, 339
etymology, 57–58, 68
European magic books, 260, 263–264, 296, 309–311
healers compared with Muslim priests, 62
prohibition, 259–265
African work, 284
Consolidated Act (1874), 263
Consolidated Slave Act (1825), 63
Criminal Code of 1987, 264
prosecutions, 62–63
recaptured African practitioners, 259
Roman Catholicism, 272
secrecy of herbal practitioners, 64
synonymous with African work, 34–35, 260–265, 339
Ogun (orisa), 214, 224, 277, 288, 308, 320. See also Clive, Miss (African work practitioner)
ancestor, 219
colours, 35, 219, 271, 285
Oguntree, 222–223
prominence, 218–219
St Michael, 268
stool, 35, 36, 219, 276–277, 279
Yorubaland, 219–220
Olumo Rock, 5, 8
orisas. See specific orisas
Orisa-Vodoo, 216
Orunmila (orisa), 224
Oseyin (Osanyin) (orisa), 260
Osun (orisa), 35, 270, 306, 320, 322. See also Paul, Norman (African work and Spiritual Baptist practitioner)
Oussa (Bill Smith) (recaptured African, Negrinha), 163–164
Owu, 4–5
Oya (orisa), 229, 268, 270
colours, 219
Oyo kingdom, 4, 117–119, 144, 218, 236–237
Palmiste Estate, St John, 183, 206
Paul, Norman (African work and Spiritual Baptist practitioner)
ancestral sacrifice, 238, 288
animal sacrifice, 288
Aruba, 296
autobiography, 298–299
Carriacou, 246–247, 297
Catholic saints, 269–270
egungun, 226–228
European magic books, 260, 264, 309–311
guidance by Osun, 276–277, 297, 303, 306
Indian Powers, 308
kola divination, 223
legal restrictions, 238, 262, 304
Legba, 225
manifestations and visions, 289, 296–297, 306
Miss Clive’s case, 283
Munich Africans, 226, 239, 303, 306
Nation Dance, 58, 233, 257, 288
Norman Paul’s Children, 254, 284, 297–298
obeah, 260
obeah accusations, 260
Ogun feast, 219
reinvigoration of African work, 299, 302–303
salt avoidance, 318, 320–321, 324
Seventh-day Adventism, 270, 287–288, 306
Spiritual Baptist Faith, 277, 279, 296–297
mourning, 308–310
spiritual guide to Eric Gairy, 338
Trinidad, 295–297
Pearls Estate, St Andrew, 328
Pearse, Andrew, 52n93, 251
Peate (recaptured African), 165
Peters, Bishop Donovan (African work and Spiritual Baptist practitioner and recaptured African descendant), 294–295
animal sacrifice, 290–291
Bishop Donovan Peters, 290
Bishop Peters reads, 293
Christian interpretation, 290–292
dreams and visions, 294
Haiti, 294
innovation, 289–294
obeah accusations, 260–261
Ogun stool, 219
religious freedom, 336
Roman Catholicism, 275
Spiritual Baptist Faith, 289–290, 294–295
Trinidad, 289, 299
Peters, Mary (recaptured African descendant), 313, 317
Mary Peters, 314
Petit Esperance, St David (village), 334
Phoenix (seized slave ship)
African baptisms, 172–173
Africans apprenticed, 150
Carriacou, 247
Africans enlisted, 117. See also West India Regiments, 1st WIR
capture, 117
description of Africans, 132
ethnic origins of Africans, 119–120
mortality, 131–132
proportion
of children, 105
of males, 104
of mature adults, 106
recording of names, 28
Pickle, HMS, 121, 135
Pierre (obeah practitioner), 63
Plains Estate, St Patrick, 174
Plaisance Estate, St Patrick, 166–168, 170–171
Poro society, 109
Portuguese indentured labourers. See Madeiran indentured labourers
Presbyterian Church, 71–72
baptism of African children, 173
conversion
of Africans, 180
of Indian labourers, 156
French Creole, 176
Price, Richard, 19–20, 172
Protestantism. See also specific denominations
African work, 270
conversion
of Africans, 162
of enslaved, 70
increase in numbers, 281
making of African work, 287–288
provision ground cultivation
apprenticed labourers, 44
enslaved peoples, 40, 42
Indian indentured labourers. See Indian indentured labourers
newly freed peoples, 48–49
recaptured Africans. See recaptured Africans
Quandana (Robert Weston) (recaptured African, Negrinha), 163–164
Queenie (recaptured African), 169
Rattler, HMS, 112
recaptured African descendants, 313–315, 321–322, 326–335
adoption of Creole cultures, 229
African identity, 294
African work, 223–225
African world view, 6, 17–18, 314–315. See also African world view
cassava production. See cassava
distinct identity, 212–213, 325
facial scarification, 228
Frederic Fenger, 201
historical scholarship, 12
Kongo identity, 327–331. See also Kongo peoples
Roman Catholicism, 294
Spiritual Baptist Faith, 294–295
Trinidad, 14
whaling industry, 199–201
Yoruba cultures, 218, 228
Yoruba identity, 1, 217–218, 341–342. See also Yoruba peoples
Yoruba language, 224–226
recaptured Africans
adoption of French Creole, 14, 159, 168, 184, 186, 226, 239
African languages, 172, 175–176
Africanisation (British Caribbean and Sierra Leone), 18
agricultural labour, 153–154
apprenticeship before 1840 scheme, 82–83
archival sources, 26–28
assault on manager, 162–165
augmenting existing ethnicities, 127–128
baptism before emigration, 92–93
British Caribbean, 6
Carriacou, 247–248
children (St Helena), 126
Christian instruction, 155
Christians, 109–110, 266
church attendance, 178–180
civilising mission, 78–80, 147–148, 152, 172
coerced emigration, 86–92, 112
community building, 162, 165, 146. See also recaptured Africans: shipmate bonds
contesting indentureship, 162–172
contracts, 148–152, 154–160
creolisation, 166, 172, 182–187, 218
delegation system, 86–87
desertion, 162, 165
detrimental effect, 80–82
distinctiveness, 185, 212–213
distribution, 137, 145–148
domestic labour, 162
enlistment, 108, 117, 139–145
ethnic homogeneity, 20
ethnic origins, 106–128
family ties respected, 146–147
gender imbalance, 147–148
greater autonomy than enslaved, 21
‘ignorance’ of French Creole, 176
ill-treatment, 169
indentured children, 84
independent villages. See independent villages
interpreters, 122, 137–139, 158–159
linguistic diversity, 159
linguistic similarities, 127–128, 130, 158–159
Map showing the locations, 166
marriage, 139, 201–202
meanings of freedom, 134, 160–172, 187, 195–199, 201–203, 207–212
migration to Trinidad, 197–198
morbidity at reception depots and mixed courts, 136–137
mortality at reception depots and mixed courts, 136
Muslims, 110, 181, 243, 324
mutiny (Trinidad). See West India Regiments, 1st WIR
numbers of Africans, 3
officials discouraging French Creole, 176–177, 186
oral sources, 28–29
oversupply, 88
plantation labour, 195–196
proportion
of children, 104–105
of males, 104
provision ground cultivation, 155, 177, 188, 194, 198, 208
psychological and physical trauma, 131–134
punishment, 164–165, 168–170
range of recruiters, 153
recaptives to Grenada, 106
refusal to emigrate, 89, 92, 112–115
religious influence of African Grenadians, 183–184
religious instruction, 182
return passages, 3, 157, 315–316
Roman Catholicism, 182–187
scheme
as akin to slavery, 81
as violation of freedom, 81
scholarship (British Caribbean), 12–18
school attendance, 174–178
securing land, 198–199
separation of Africans, 146
ship mortality. See specific ships
shipmate bonds, 134–135, 146, 166
Sierra Leone, 84–90
similar shipboard experiences to enslaved, 134–135
St Kitts, 85, 316
St Lucia, 85, 316
St Vincent, 85, 280, 316
sugar industry. See sugar industry
unions with soldiers, 139
wage negotiation, 196–197
whaling industry, 199–201
women, 148
Yoruba identity, 215
Reith, Robert (estate manager), 168, 170–172
remembering as an act of recovery, 335
repatriation, 316. See also recaptured Africans: return passages
human flight. See African world view
Revolution, Grenadian, 272, 338–340
River Sallee, St Patrick (village), 60, 323, 325
Roberts, Denise (recaptured African descendant), 330–331
Roberts, Papa (recaptured African and African work practitioner), 210, 221, 226–228
Roman Catholicism, 71
African Grenadians shaping African conversion, 175, 179, 183–184
clergy
and African work, 267, 270, 273–274
and French Creole, 186
conversion of enslaved, 42
incorporated in Nation Dance, 69
making of African work, 13, 36, 186–187, 217–218, 265–274, 294–295
obstacles to conversion
enslaved, 69–72
recaptured Africans, 174
preferred denomination of Africans, 16, 173, 179, 182, 185–187
rivalry with Protestants, 174–175
saints and correspondences with orisas, 218, 268–271
schools for African children, 174–175
West Central Africa, 266
Romney, HMS, 121, 133, 135, 138
Safey, Ms (African work practitioner), 252–253
Salt avoidance. See African world view
Samaritan Estate, St Patrick, 47
Sango (orisa), 215, 224, 236
Brazil, 237
colours, 219, 252, 254, 271–272, 285
de-emphasis, 236, 239
reification, 230, 235, 270
reverence, 237, 240
St John, 268–269
Yorubaland, 236–237
Santería, 19, 22, 24, 216
saraka, 119, 252, 267, 288, 298, 321. See also Nation Dance
augmented by recaptured Africans, 324–325
cardinal directionality, 224
historical record, 315
River Sallee Saraka, 323
Roman Catholicism, 272
salt avoidance, 325
Schuler, Monica, 12, 14–17, 29, 87, 89, 167, 318–319, 321
Scottish indentured labourers, 97
Senegambia, 61, 324, 327
Shakpana (orisa), 224, 260
Sherbro peoples (recaptured Africans), 108–109
Sherbro secret society, 109
Sierra del Pilar (seized slave ship). See Louise Fredericke (emigrant ship)
Sierra Leone
enslaved Africans, 66
Freetown
Liberated African yard, 84, 88–90, 110–111, 113–116
vice admiralty court, 108, 110
Galinhas
recaptured Africans, 107–108, 110, 114–115
Jamaican Maroons, 86
labour recruitment, 6, 84–90
recaptured Africans, 67, 86–90, 106, 110–116, 127, 129–130, 135, 139, 145–146, 151–152, 163, 165–172, 217
specific ships departing. See Atlantic (emigrant ship); Brandon (emigrant ship); Clarendon (emigrant ship); Negrinha (seized slave ship)
Simpson, George E., 305
slave trade
Abolition Act. See Abolition Act (1807)
Brazil. See Brazil
Cuba. See Cuba
illegal slave trade, 74, 84, 98, 110, 165
suppression, 2–3, 77–78, 90, 98–99, 103
Slave Trade (Portugal) Act (1839), 90, 108
slavery. See enslaved Africans
Smith, Michael G.
African work, 20, 123, 218, 223, 235, 246–247, 255–256, 270, 284, 287, 289, 295–297, 304, 310–311, 321
European magic books, 264
Nation Dance, 14, 102, 257
recaptured Africans, 20, 103, 208, 210, 216–217, 230, 328
Spiritual Baptist Faith, 282–284, 295
Snell Hall Estate, St Patrick, 206–207
Sokoto Caliphate, 119
soucoyan, 318
Spiritual Baptist Faith
Africanity, 311
animal sacrifice, 287–289
Chinese influence, 308–309
commonalities
with African work, 284–287
St Vincentian Faith, 282, 295
Trinidadian Faith, 295
core practices, 278–279
divergences from African work, 285–286
divine revelation, 288–289
Eric Gairy, 337–340, 339n18
European book magic, 309–311
fragmentation, 301
Grenadian Revolution, 337–340
Indian influence, 279, 306–309
interwoven with African work, 275, 277, 279, 290–295
Carriacou, 297–298
invigoration of African work, 14, 276–278
Kabbalistic influence, 309
legitimation, 285, 301, 336
legitimising African work, 284, 289, 294
Mother Annie’s Spiritual Baptist church, 286
mourning (spiritual travel), 308–309
non-linear and multi-sited diffusion, 278
Norman Paul’s Children, 275, 284, 297–298
numbers of adherents, 285
numbers of churches, 285
origins, 278n6, 279, 280
prohibition, 281–284, 301
African work, 283–284
The Public Meetings (‘Shakerism’) Prohibition Ordinance, 263, 281, 283, 301
rejuvenation from Trinidad, 289, 295–299
religious persecution, 280–282, 339–340
salt avoidance, 318
St Vincent prohibition, 280
St Helena
African baptisms, 93
coerced emigration, 91–92
domestic labour, 6
enlistment, 6, 91
ethnic groups, 124–126
ill health of Africans, 91–92, 136–137
Indian immigrants, 93
labour recruitment, 6, 90–91
Lemon Valley, 90
mortality, 6, 90
recaptured Africans, 90–93, 126–127, 135–137, 139, 145–146, 152, 165, 196, 211, 329–330
resistance to emigrate, 92–93
Rupert Valley, 90
age profile of Africans, 126
excavations, 126–127
ships condemned, 90
significance, 123–124
specific ships departing. See Akbar (emigrant ship); Athletoe (emigrant ship); Barbara Campbell (emigrant ship); Ceres (emigrant ship); Tartar (emigrant ship)
vice-admiralty court, 90
St Vincent, 246
Stewart, Dianne, 13, 16–17, 24–25, 178, 184, 186, 228, 237, 256, 258, 269
sugar industry
African immigration, 79–80, 98, 191–193
beet sugar, 76, 76n8
Brazil. See Brazil
Cuba. See Cuba
decline, 76, 153–154, 189
Encumbered Estates Acts, 194
expansion, 38–39
Fédon Rebellion, 41
indentured immigration, 100–101
Indian indentured labourers, 95, 194
British Guiana and Trinidad, 194
Madeiran indentured labourers, 97
métayage system, 49, 76–77, 189–191
recaptured Africans, 7, 153–154
Carriacou, 154
relative importance, 39
Sugar Duties Act (1846), 76–77, 87
Susey (recaptured African woman), 168, 171
Tartar (emigrant ship)
crew bonuses, 136
distribution of Africans, 146
proportion of children, 105
Temne peoples
enslaved Africans, 66
free Africans, 66–67
recaptured Africans, 67, 108, 163
Thomas, Bobby (recaptured African descendant), 330–331
Thomas, Lennox (recaptured African descendant), 326
Thomas, Reverend Eudora (Spiritual Baptist practitioner), 304
Thomas, Wellington (recaptured African), 330–331
Thomasina (African work practitioner), 297
Tivoli Estate, St Andrew, 169, 326
Trinidad and Tobago
African work, 17, 259–260
recaptured Africans, 13
role of Grenadians, 301–302
anti-obeah legislation, 337
Arada peoples, 17, 65, 302
Black Power Movement, 17, 336, 339
drumming prohibition, 304
Gbe-speaking peoples, 144
Indian indentured labourers, 194
migration from Grenada, 156
obeah
prohibition, 304
recaptured Africans, 259
recaptured Africans, 13, 85, 141, 144, 157, 178, 184–186, 217, 316
mutiny. See West India Regiments
Spiritual Baptist Faith, 17
legitimation, 299–300, 336–337, 340
repeal of ordinance, 336
role of Grenadians, 299–301
West Indian Evangelical Spiritual Baptist Faith, 300
prohibition, 238, 260, 281
Yoruba peoples, 144
Trotman, David, 13, 16, 186, 231, 268, 302
Tuillieries Estate, St Andrew, 204
Ulagüe (recaptured African, Louise Fredericke), 134
Umbanda, 216
Umbundu peoples, 125
Upper Conference Estate, St Andrew, 205
Upper Guinea Coast, 61
Upper Latante Estate, St David, 165
Vanji, Miss (African work practitioner), 253
Vestal, HMS, 107, 143
Vida, Miss (African work practitioner, Carriacou), 253
Warner-Lewis, Maureen, 14–15, 17–18, 29, 144, 184, 197, 203n75, 217, 231
Wesleyan Methodist church, 72, 180
baptism of African children, 173
missionaries discouraging immigration (Sierra Leone), 89
obstacles to conversion
enslaved, 70–72
recaptured Africans, 174
religious conversion of Africans, 178–179
schools for African children, 174–175
Spiritual Baptist Faith (St Vincent), 279–280
views on newly freed peoples, 47
West Central Africa
Ambriz, 124
Benguela, 124
Cabinda, 124
Congo River, 124–125
enslaved Africans, 65–66
recaptured Africans, 105, 123–126, 165, 182, 186, 232–233, 327–331
Jamaica, 15
West India Regiments
1st WIR, 44, 108, 117
mutiny (Trinidad), 139–145
2nd WIR, 122, 138
William, Papa (recaptured African and African work practitioner), 214–215, 226
Willie, Dr (obeah practitioner), 63
Windward Coast, 61
Wise, Henry (American consul in Brazil), 74
women organising cultural affirming spaces, 244
Wood, John (recaptured African, Negrinha), 153
Woodford Estate, St John, 206, 325
X, Malcolm (recaptured African descendant and activist), 331–335
Yemanja/Yemoja (orisa), 35, 221, 224, 270, 320
Mamadjo, 272
St Anne, 268
Yoruba peoples, 247
Ajase peoples, 217
‘Anango’ peoples, 123, 328
Carriacou, 247
displacement, 4–5
Egba peoples, 4–5, 232, 236
Egbado peoples, 217
Ekiti peoples, 232
Ijebu peoples, 4, 217, 232
Ijesha peoples, 215, 217–218, 227–228, 232, 236, 342
‘Nago’ peoples, 133, 138
Ondo peoples, 232
Owu peoples, 4–5
Oyo peoples, 232
recaptured Africans
Sierra Leone, 114
Trinidad, 14

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  • Index
  • Shantel A. George, University of Glasgow
  • Book: The Yoruba Are on a Rock
  • Online publication: 18 September 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009358996.015
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  • Index
  • Shantel A. George, University of Glasgow
  • Book: The Yoruba Are on a Rock
  • Online publication: 18 September 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009358996.015
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  • Index
  • Shantel A. George, University of Glasgow
  • Book: The Yoruba Are on a Rock
  • Online publication: 18 September 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009358996.015
Available formats
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