Hostname: page-component-cb9f654ff-hn9fh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-08-30T19:53:49.348Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Torture and Translation in the Multilingual Courtrooms of Early Modern France

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2018

Paul Cohen
Paul Cohen*
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article sketches the history of the mediation of linguistic difference in the context of judicial torture in early modern France. It argues that language represented an important dimension of what took place in the torture chambers of early modern Europe. Embedded within multilingual societies and habitually confronted with linguistic difference, tribunals developed an array of mediation practices. Shaped by officials’ scribal and linguistic practices and their infliction of pain in order to establish judicial facts, their linguistic choices also shed light on how jurists conceived of and set out uncovering the truth.

Information

Type
Studies
Information
Renaissance Quarterly , Volume 69 , Issue 3 , Fall 2016 , pp. 899 - 939
Copyright
Copyright © 2016 Renaissance Society of America

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Bibliography

Archives Départementales de la Haute-Garonne (ADHG), Toulouse, 51 B 21.Google Scholar
No. 1, fols. 1r–22r. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of Pierre Faure (12 February 1633).Google Scholar
No. 3, fols. 64r–92r. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of Leonard, known as Jean Barbet (28 and 30 June 1662).Google Scholar
No. 6, fols. 131r–152r. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of Lizette Paute (20 and 22 April 1667).Google Scholar
No. 7, fols. 153r–166v. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of Anthoine Delbosc (20 and 22 March 1668).Google Scholar
No. 21, fols. 246r–252r. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of Jean Despax (2 August 1683).Google Scholar
No. 26, fols. 266r–272v. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of Vital Saltet (22, 25 September 1684).Google Scholar
ADHG, 51 B 22.Google Scholar
No. 6, fols. 30r–35r. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of Bernard Masseloup (24 November 1687).Google Scholar
No. 44, fols. 174r–179r. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of François Ollés (19 May 1695).Google Scholar
No. 51, fols. 224r–227r. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of Anne Vernhes (6 June 1696).Google Scholar
ADHG, B Juridictions Secondaires 456. Juridiction d’Eaunes, interrogations (April 1524).Google Scholar
ADHG, H Malte Registre 613. Sénéchaussée de Toulouse, trial on appeal of “Jehan Gaffie alias lo monge de caudenal” (1522–23), transcription.Google Scholar
ADHG, 45 J 55, no. 21. Letter addressed to Celerii (2 May 1532).Google Scholar
Archives Départementales de l’Ariège (ADA), Foix, 136 E Suppl. FF 4, no. 1. Juridiction consulaire (Seix), interrogation (18 February 1537).Google Scholar
ADA, G 149, no. 58. Officialité de Pamiers, interrogation of Suzanne Tallon (5 October 1663).Google Scholar
Archives Départementales des Pyrénées-Atlantiques (ADPA), Pau, B 4551 [Microfilm 2 Mi 16/5], fols. 122v–123v. Parlement of Navarre (Pau), arrêt (26 September 1732).Google Scholar
ADPA, B 8356. Sénéchaussée de Bayonne, interrogations (12 July 1683 and 27 August 1685).Google Scholar
Archives Départementales d’Ille-et-Vilaine (ADIV), Rennes, 1 B g 105 [formerly 1 B g 342]. Siège royal (Lannion), interrogations (7 June 1628 and 8–12 June 1629).Google Scholar
Archives Départementales du Finistère, Brest, B 860. Présidial de Quimper, interrogations (27 July 1723, 25 September 1723, and 28 June 1730).Google Scholar
Archives Départementales du Gers, Auch, B 6, fols. 360v–362r. Conseil de la Sénéchaussée d’Armagnac (Barcelonne), trial (13 May 1557).Google Scholar
Archives Municipales de Pamiers (AMP), Foix, BB 104. Town council deliberations (1549–50).Google Scholar
AMP, BB 105. Town council deliberations (1554).Google Scholar
AMP, BB 107. Town council deliberations (1559).Google Scholar
Archive Municipales de Toulouse (AMT), Toulouse, CC 1891. City treasurer’s accounts (1532).Google Scholar
AMT, Toulouse, FF 174. Capitoulat (Toulouse), civil court, register (1539–40).Google Scholar
Archives Nationales d’Outre-Mer, Aix-en-Provence, Inde MS 35, no. 4. Conseil supérieur (Pondicherry), trial of Vingayen (2 September 1792).Google Scholar
Bibliothèque et Archives Nationales du Québec, Montréal, Vieux-Montréal TL4 S1 D2485. Juridiction royale (Montréal), interrogation of Ignace Gaientarongouian (8 June 1720). http://pistard.banq.qc.ca/unite_chercheurs/description_fonds?p_anqsid=201505141155201115&p_centre=06M&p_classe=TL&p_fonds=4&p_numunide=863586.Google Scholar
Bibliothèque Municipale de Toulouse, Toulouse, MS 645, fols. 5r–42r. Louis de Froidour, “Memoire du pays de Soulle.”.Google Scholar
Anatole, Christian, ed. Pèire Godolin: Actes du Colloque International Université de Toulouse-Le Mirail. Toulouse, 1982.Google Scholar
Audisio, Gabriel, and Bonnot-Rambaud, Isabelle. Lire le française d’hier. Manuel de paléographie moderne XVe–XVIIIe siècle. 2nd ed. Paris, 1997.Google Scholar
Bailly, Jean L’histoire du greffier. Paris, 1987.Google Scholar
Beam, Sara “Rites of Torture in Reformation Geneva.” Past and Present supplement 7 (2012): 197–219.10.1093/pastj/gtr023CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behringer, Wolfgang Witchcraft Persecutions in Bavaria: Popular Magic, Religious Zealotry and Reason of State in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge, 1997.Google Scholar
Belmessous, Saliha “Être français en Nouvelle-France: Identité française et identité coloniale aux dix-septième et dix-huitième siècles.” French Historical Studies 27.3 (2004): 507–40.10.1215/00161071-27-3-507CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berk-Seligson, Susan. The Bilingual Courtroom: Court Interpreters in the Judicial Process. Chicago, 1990.Google Scholar
Bertin-Mourot, Eliane. “La Maréchausseée en Bretagne au XVIIIe siècle (1720–1789).” Thesis, Université de Rennes, 1969.Google Scholar
Bien, David D. The Calas Affair: Persecution, Toleration, and Heresy in Eighteenth-Century Toulouse. Princeton, 1960.Google Scholar
Blockmans, Wim, and Prevenier, Walter. The Promised Lands: The Low Countries under Burgundian Rule, 1369–1530. Trans. Elizabeth Fackelman and Edward Peters. Philadelphia, 1999.10.9783/9780812200706CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brockey, Liam Matthew Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, 1579–1724. Cambridge, 2007.10.4159/9780674028814CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broudic, Fañch. La pratique du breton de l’Ancien Régime à nos jours. Rennes, 1995.Google Scholar
Brunot, Ferdinand Histoire de la langue française des origines à nos jours. 13 vols. Paris, 1905–53.Google Scholar
Burke, Peter The Art of Conversation. Ithaca, 1993.Google Scholar
Burke, Peter Languages and Communities in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge, 2004.10.1017/CBO9780511617362CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burke, Peter, and Porter, Roy, eds. The Social History of Language. Cambridge, 1987.Google Scholar
Burke, Peter, eds. Language, Self and Society: A Social History of Language. Cambridge, 1991.Google Scholar
Cassan, Michel “Officiers ‘moyens,’ officiers seigneuriaux: Quelques perspectives de recherche.” Les Cahiers du Centre de Recherches Historiques 27 (2001): 2–10.Google Scholar
Castan, Nicole “La justice en question en France à la fin de l’Ancien Régime.” Déviance et Société 7.1 (1983): 23–34.10.3406/ds.1983.1771CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castan, Yves “Les Languedociens du XVIIIe siècle et l’obstacle de la langue écrite.” In France du nord et France du midi. Vol. 1 of Actes du 96e Congrès National des Société Savantes: Section d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, 73–84. Paris, 1976.Google Scholar
Cavallo, Guglielmo, and Chartier, Roger. Histoire de la lecture dans le monde occidental. Paris, 1997.Google Scholar
Caverel, Philippe de, ed. Ambassade en Espagne et en Portugal (en 1582) de R. P. en Dieu Dom Jean Sarrazin, abbé de St.-Vaast. Arras, 1858.Google Scholar
Charnay, Annie, ed. Le Procès de Jean Gaffié dit lo monge de Caudaval médecin empirique et voleur vagabond 1522–1523. Toulouse, 1991.Google Scholar
Charnay, Annie, ed. Paroles de voleurs: Gens de sac et de corde en pays toulousain au début du XVIe siècle. Paris, 1998.Google Scholar
Clanchy, Michael T. From Memory to Written Record: England 1066–1307. London, 1993.Google Scholar
Cohen, Esther The Modulated Scream: Pain in Late Medieval Culture. Chicago, 2010.10.7208/chicago/9780226112695.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Paul “Courtly French, Learned Latin, and Peasant Patois: The Making of a National Language in Early Modern France.” PhD diss., Princeton University, 2001.Google Scholar
Cohen, Paul “Qu’est-ce que c’est que le français? Les destins d’une catégorie linguistique, 15e–18e siècle.” In Repenser l’histoire du français?, ed. Dominique Lagorgette, 139–62. Chambéry, 2015.Google Scholar
Coras, Jean de Arrest Memorable Du Parlement De Tolose, Contenant une histoire prodigieuse, de nostre temps. Lyon, Antoine Vincent, 1561.Google Scholar
Czeitschner, Susanne “Discourse, Hegemony and Polyglossia in the Judicial System of Trieste in the 19th Century.” In Diglossia and Power: Language Policies and Practice in the 19th Century Habsburg Empire, ed. Rosita Rindler Schjerve, 69–105. Berlin, 2003.Google Scholar
Dakhlia, Jocelyne Lingua Franca: Histoire d’une langue métisse en Méditerranée. Arles, 2008.Google Scholar
Davis, Natalie Zemon “Printing and the People.” In Society and Culture in Early Modern France, 189–226. Stanford, 1975.Google Scholar
Davis, Natalie Zemon “Les conteurs de Montaillou.” Annales: Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations 34.1 (1979): 61–73.10.3406/ahess.1979.294022CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, Natalie Zemon Fiction in the Archives: Pardon Tales and Their Tellers in Sixteenth-Century France. Stanford, 1987.Google Scholar
Desrues, François. Description Contenant Toutes Les Singularitez Des Plus Celebres Villes Et Places Remarquables Du Royaume De France. . . . Reveu Corrige Et Augmente Du Sommaire De Lestat Cartes Des Provinces Et De Quelques Portraitz Des Plus Signalees Villes Dudict Royaume. Rouen, David Geffroy, [1630].Google Scholar
Dewald, Jonathan The Formation of a Provincial Nobility: The Magistrates of the Parlement of Rouen, 1499–1610. Princeton, 1980.10.1515/9781400853762CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dolan, Claire, ed. Entre justice et justiciables: Les auxiliaires de la justice du Moyen Âge au XXe siècle. Québec, 2005.Google Scholar
Dubuisson-Aubenay, . Itinéraire de Bretagne en 1636. 2 vols. Ed. Léon Maitre and Paul de Berthou. Nantes, 1898–1902.Google Scholar
Durand, Bernard, and Otis-Cour, Leah, eds. La torture judiciaire: Approches historiques et juridiques. 2 vols. Lille, 2002.Google Scholar
Dursteler, Eric “Language and Identity in the Early Modern Mediterranean.” In Mediterranean Identities in the Premodern Era: Islands, Entrepôts, Empires, ed. John Watkins and Kathryn Reyerson, 35–52. Farnham, 2014.Google Scholar
Durston, Alan Pastoral Quechua: The History of Christian Translation in Colonial Peru, 1550–1650. Notre Dame, 2007.Google Scholar
Du Val, Pierre Description De La France, Et De Ses Provinces. Paris, Jean du Puis, 1663.Google Scholar
Fabre, Daniel “Introduction: Seize terrains d’écriture.” In Par écrit: Ethnologie des écritures quotidiennes, ed. Daniel Fabre, 1–56. Paris, 1997.10.4000/books.editionsmsh.3949CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiorelli, Piero La tortura giudiziaria nel diritto comune. 2 vols. Rome, 1953–54.Google Scholar
Foucault, Michel Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Trans. Alan Sheridan. 2nd ed. New York, 1995.Google Scholar
Fraher, Richard M. “Conviction according to Conscience: The Medieval Jurists’ Debate Concerning Judicial Discretion and the Law of Proof.” Law and History Review 7.1 (1989): 23–88.10.2307/743777CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Froidour, Louis “Louis de Froidour en Pays Basque.” Eds. H. de Coincy and O. Densusianu. Bulletin de la Société des Sciences, Lettres, Arts et Études Régionales de Bayonne, nouvelle série, no. 2 (1928): 213–49.Google Scholar
Garrioch, David “Verbal Insults in Eighteenth-Century Paris.” In The Social History of Language, ed. Peter Burke and Roy Porter, 104–19. Cambridge, 1987.Google Scholar
Garrison, Janine L’Affaire Calas: Miroir des passions françaises. Paris, 2004.Google Scholar
Ginzburg, Carlo The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller. Trans. John Tedeschi and Anne Tedeschi. Baltimore, 1980.Google Scholar
Ginzburg, Carlo “L’inquisitore come antropologo.” In Il filo e le tracce: Vero falso finto, 270–80. Milan, 2006.Google Scholar
Goudelin, Pierre Le Ramelet mondin et autres oeuvres: Texte établi d’après les éditions de 1617, 1621, 1637, 1638 et 1647/48, transcription graphique, introduction et notes. Ed. Philippe Gardy. Aix-en-Provence, 1984.Google Scholar
Gray, Edward G. New World Babel: Language and Nations in Early America. Princeton, 1999.10.1515/9781400864966CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isambert, F. A., et al, eds. Recueil général des anciennes lois françaises depuis l’an 420 jusqu'à la Révolution de 1789. 29 vols. Paris, 1821–33.Google Scholar
Jeanneret, Michel “La littérature et la voix: attraits et mirages de l’oral au XVIe siècle.” In Naissances, Renaissances: Moyen Âge-XVIe siècle, ed. Frank Lestringant and Michel Zink, 212–25. Vol. 1 of Histoire de la France littéraire, ed. Michel Prigent. Paris, 2006.Google Scholar
Jousse, Daniel Traité De La Justice Criminelle De France. 4 vols. Paris, Debure Père, 1771.Google Scholar
Krause, Virginia Witchcraft, Demonology, and Confession in Early Modern France. Cambridge, 2015.10.1017/CBO9781139696685CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kremnitz, Georg, ed. Histoire sociale des langues de France. Rennes, 2013.Google Scholar
La Bruyère, Jean de. Les caractères. Ed. Robert Garapon. Paris, 1962.Google Scholar
La Charité, Raymond C. “Refléxion-divertissement et intertextualité: Rabelais et l’Ecolier limousin.” In Textes et intertextes: Études sur le XVIe siècle pour Alfred Glauser, ed. Floyd Gray and Marcel Tetel, 93–103. Paris, 1979.Google Scholar
Lancre, Pierre de Tableau De L’Inconstance Des Mauvais Anges Et Demons. Paris: Jean Berjon, 1612.Google Scholar
Langbein, John H. Torture and the Law of Proof: Europe and England in the Ancien Régime. Chicago, 1977.10.7208/chicago/9780226922614.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lea, Henry Charles A History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages. 3 vols. New York, 1887.Google Scholar
Lea, Henry Charles A History of the Inquisition in Spain. 4 vols. New York, 1906–07.Google Scholar
Leahey, Margaret J. “‘Comment peut un muet prescher l’évangile?’: Jesuit Missionaries and the Native Languages of New France.” French Historical Studies 19.1 (1995): 105–31.10.2307/286901CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Le Bouvier, Gilles Le Livre de la Description des Pays. Ed. E.-T. Hamy. Paris, 1908.Google Scholar
Le Menn, Gwennolé. “Les Bretons bretonnants d’après quelques textes et récits de voyage (XIVe–XVIIe siècles).” Mémoires de la Société d’Histoire et d’Archéologie de Bretagne 61 (1984): 105–34.Google Scholar
Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. Montaillou: Promised Land of Error. Trans. Barbara Bray. New York, 1978.Google Scholar
Levack, Brian P. The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe. 3rd ed. Abingdon, 2006.Google Scholar
Lusignan, Serge “Langue française et société du XIIIe au XVe siècle.” In Nouvelle histoire de la langue française, ed. Jacques Chaurand, 93–143. Paris, 1999.Google Scholar
Marchello-Nizia, Christiane. Histoire de la langue française aux XIVe et XVe siècles. 2nd ed. Paris, 1992.Google Scholar
Martin, John Jeffries Myths of Renaissance Individualism. Hampshire, 2004.10.1057/9780230535756CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, John Jeffries “Tortured Testimonies.” Acta Histriae 19.3 (2011): 375–92.Google Scholar
Merback, Mitchell B. The Thief, the Cross and the Wheel: Pain and the Spectacle of Punishment in Medieval and Renaissance Europe. Chicago, 1999.Google Scholar
Metcalf, Aleida C. Go-Betweens and the Colonization of Brazil, 1500–1600. Austin, 2005.Google Scholar
Mignolo, Walter D. “On the Colonization of Amerindian Languages and Memories: Renaissance Theories of Writing and the Discontinuity of the Classical Tradition.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 34.2 (1992): 301–30.10.1017/S0010417500017709CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montaigne, Michel de Essays. Trans. Donald M. Frame. Stanford, 1988.Google Scholar
Montazel, Laurence “Les parlements de France et la torture judiciaire du XVe au XVIIIe siècle.” In La torture judiciaire: Approches historiques et juridiques, ed. Bernard Durand and Leah Otis-Cour, 2:613–41. Lille, 2002.Google Scholar
Monter, E. William. Witchcraft in France and Switzerland: The Borderlands during the Reformation. Ithaca, 1976.Google Scholar
Morris, David B. The Culture of Pain. Berkeley, 1991.Google Scholar
Moscoso, Javier Pain: A Cultural History. Basingstoke, 2012.10.1057/9781137284235CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muchembled, Robert Le temps des supplices: De l’obéissance sous les rois absolus, XVe–XVIIIe siècle. 1992. Reprint, Paris, 2006.Google Scholar
Münster, Sebastien. La Cosmographie Universelle, Contenant la situation de toutes les parties du monde, avec leurs proprietez & appartenances. Henry Pierre, 1565.Google Scholar
Ordonnances des rois de France: Règne de François Ier. 9 vols. Paris, 1902–89.Google Scholar
Peters, Edward Torture. 1985. Reprint, New York, 1986.Google Scholar
Pinson-Ramin, Véronique. “La Torture judiciaire en Bretagne au XVIIe siècle.” Revue Historique du Droit Français et Étranger 72.4 (1994): 549–68.Google Scholar
Pitton, Jean-Scholastique. Histoire De La Ville D’Aix Capitale De La Provence. Aix, Charles David, 1666.Google Scholar
Platter, Félix, and Platter, Thomas. Félix Et Thomas Platter à Montpellier, 1552–1559, 1595–1599: Notes De Voyage De Deux Étudiants Bâlois. Trans. M. L. Kieffer. Montpellier, 1892.Google Scholar
Plessix-Buisset, Christiane. Le criminel devant ses juges en Bretagne aux 16e et 17e siècles. Paris, 1988.Google Scholar
Rabelais, François. Oeuvres complètes. Ed. Mireille Huchon. Paris, 1994.Google Scholar
Rafael, Vicente L. Contracting Colonialism: Translation and Christian Conversion in Tagalog Society under Early Spanish Rule. Ithaca, 1988.Google Scholar
Rebuffi, Pierre Commentarii In Constitutiones Seu Ordinationes Regias Non Solumiuris Studiosis , Verum Etiam Pragmaticis Utilissimi. 2 vols. Lyon, Claudium Sennetonium, 1567.Google Scholar
Roper, Lyndal Witch Craze: Terror and Fantasy in Baroque Germany. New Haven, 2004.Google Scholar
Rothman, E. Natalie. Brokering Empire: Trans-Imperial Subjects between Venice and Istanbul. Ithaca, 2011.10.7591/cornell/9780801449079.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sbriccoli, Mario “‘Tormentum idest torquere mentem’: Processo inquisitorio e interrogatorio per tortura nell’Italia comunale.” In La parola all’accusato, ed. Jean-Claude Maire Vigueur and Agostino Paravicini Gabliani, 17–32. Palermo, 1991.Google Scholar
Scaliger, Joseph Scaligerana Ou Bons mots, Rencontres Agreables, Et Remarques Judicieuses & Sçavantes de J. Scaliger. Avec Des Notes de Mr. Le Fevre, & de Mr. de Colomies.... Cologne, 1695.Google Scholar
Scarry, Elaine The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World. New York, 1985.Google Scholar
Schnapper, Bernard “La répression pénale au XVIe siècle. L’exemple du Parlement de Bordeaux (1510–1565).” Recueil de Mémoires et Travaux publié par la Société d’Histoire du Droit et des Institutions des Anciens Pays de Droit Écrit 8 (1971): 1–54.Google Scholar
Schnapper, Bernard “La justice criminelle rendue par le Parlement de Paris sous le règne de François 1er.” Revue Historique de Droit Français et Étranger 52.2 (1974): 252–84.Google Scholar
Silverman, Lisa Tortured Subjects: Pain, Truth and Body in Early Modern France. Chicago, 2001.10.7208/chicago/9780226757520.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soman, Alfred “La justice criminelle au XVIe–XVIIe siècles: Le Parlement de Paris et les sièges subalternes.” In La faute, la répression et le pardon, 15–52. Vol. 1 of Actes du 107e Congrès National des Sociétés Savantes. Section de Philologie et d’Histoire jusqu’à 1610. Paris, 1984.Google Scholar
Spierenburg, Pieter Written in Blood: Fatal Attraction in Enlightenment Amsterdam. Columbus, 2004.Google Scholar
Stock, Brian The Implications of Literacy: Written Language and Models of Interpretation in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries. Princeton, 1983.Google Scholar
Stokes, Laura Demons of Urban Reform: Early European Witch Trials and Criminal Justice, 1430–1530. New York, 2011.10.1057/9780230309043CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Streuver, Nancy S. “The Study of Language and the Study of History.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 4.3 (1974): 401–15.10.2307/202484CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trotter, David “‘Si le français n’y peut aller’: Villers-Cotterêts and Mixed-Language Documents from the Pyrenees.” In Conceptions of Europe in Renaissance France, ed. David Cowling, 77–97. Amsterdam, 2006.Google Scholar
Ullmann, Walter “Reflections on Medieval Torture.” Juridical Review 56 (1944): 123–37.Google Scholar
Veinstein, Gilles “L’administration ottomane et le problème des interprètes.” In Études sur les villes du Proche-Orient XVIe–XIXe siècle: Hommage à André Raymond, ed. Brigitte Marino, 65–79. Damas, 2001.Google Scholar
Venuti, Lawrence The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation. London, 1995.10.4324/9780203360064CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vigueur, Jean-Claude Maire, and Gabliani, Agostino Paravicini, eds. La parola all’accusato. Palermo, 1991.Google Scholar
Waquet, Françoise. Latin, or the Empire of a Sign. Trans. John Howe. London, 2001.Google Scholar
Whalley, Joyce Irene The Art of Calligraphy: Western Europe and America. London, 1980.Google Scholar
Archives Départementales de la Haute-Garonne (ADHG), Toulouse, 51 B 21.Google Scholar
No. 1, fols. 1r–22r. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of Pierre Faure (12 February 1633).Google Scholar
No. 3, fols. 64r–92r. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of Leonard, known as Jean Barbet (28 and 30 June 1662).Google Scholar
No. 6, fols. 131r–152r. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of Lizette Paute (20 and 22 April 1667).Google Scholar
No. 7, fols. 153r–166v. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of Anthoine Delbosc (20 and 22 March 1668).Google Scholar
No. 21, fols. 246r–252r. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of Jean Despax (2 August 1683).Google Scholar
No. 26, fols. 266r–272v. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of Vital Saltet (22, 25 September 1684).Google Scholar
ADHG, 51 B 22.Google Scholar
No. 6, fols. 30r–35r. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of Bernard Masseloup (24 November 1687).Google Scholar
No. 44, fols. 174r–179r. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of François Ollés (19 May 1695).Google Scholar
No. 51, fols. 224r–227r. Chambre de la gêne (Toulouse), interrogation of Anne Vernhes (6 June 1696).Google Scholar
ADHG, B Juridictions Secondaires 456. Juridiction d’Eaunes, interrogations (April 1524).Google Scholar
ADHG, H Malte Registre 613. Sénéchaussée de Toulouse, trial on appeal of “Jehan Gaffie alias lo monge de caudenal” (1522–23), transcription.Google Scholar
ADHG, 45 J 55, no. 21. Letter addressed to Celerii (2 May 1532).Google Scholar
Archives Départementales de l’Ariège (ADA), Foix, 136 E Suppl. FF 4, no. 1. Juridiction consulaire (Seix), interrogation (18 February 1537).Google Scholar
ADA, G 149, no. 58. Officialité de Pamiers, interrogation of Suzanne Tallon (5 October 1663).Google Scholar
Archives Départementales des Pyrénées-Atlantiques (ADPA), Pau, B 4551 [Microfilm 2 Mi 16/5], fols. 122v–123v. Parlement of Navarre (Pau), arrêt (26 September 1732).Google Scholar
ADPA, B 8356. Sénéchaussée de Bayonne, interrogations (12 July 1683 and 27 August 1685).Google Scholar
Archives Départementales d’Ille-et-Vilaine (ADIV), Rennes, 1 B g 105 [formerly 1 B g 342]. Siège royal (Lannion), interrogations (7 June 1628 and 8–12 June 1629).Google Scholar
Archives Départementales du Finistère, Brest, B 860. Présidial de Quimper, interrogations (27 July 1723, 25 September 1723, and 28 June 1730).Google Scholar
Archives Départementales du Gers, Auch, B 6, fols. 360v–362r. Conseil de la Sénéchaussée d’Armagnac (Barcelonne), trial (13 May 1557).Google Scholar
Archives Municipales de Pamiers (AMP), Foix, BB 104. Town council deliberations (1549–50).Google Scholar
AMP, BB 105. Town council deliberations (1554).Google Scholar
AMP, BB 107. Town council deliberations (1559).Google Scholar
Archive Municipales de Toulouse (AMT), Toulouse, CC 1891. City treasurer’s accounts (1532).Google Scholar
AMT, Toulouse, FF 174. Capitoulat (Toulouse), civil court, register (1539–40).Google Scholar
Archives Nationales d’Outre-Mer, Aix-en-Provence, Inde MS 35, no. 4. Conseil supérieur (Pondicherry), trial of Vingayen (2 September 1792).Google Scholar
Bibliothèque et Archives Nationales du Québec, Montréal, Vieux-Montréal TL4 S1 D2485. Juridiction royale (Montréal), interrogation of Ignace Gaientarongouian (8 June 1720). http://pistard.banq.qc.ca/unite_chercheurs/description_fonds?p_anqsid=201505141155201115&p_centre=06M&p_classe=TL&p_fonds=4&p_numunide=863586.Google Scholar
Bibliothèque Municipale de Toulouse, Toulouse, MS 645, fols. 5r–42r. Louis de Froidour, “Memoire du pays de Soulle.”.Google Scholar
Anatole, Christian, ed. Pèire Godolin: Actes du Colloque International Université de Toulouse-Le Mirail. Toulouse, 1982.Google Scholar
Audisio, Gabriel, and Bonnot-Rambaud, Isabelle. Lire le française d’hier. Manuel de paléographie moderne XVe–XVIIIe siècle. 2nd ed. Paris, 1997.Google Scholar
Bailly, Jean L’histoire du greffier. Paris, 1987.Google Scholar
Beam, Sara “Rites of Torture in Reformation Geneva.” Past and Present supplement 7 (2012): 197–219.10.1093/pastj/gtr023CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behringer, Wolfgang Witchcraft Persecutions in Bavaria: Popular Magic, Religious Zealotry and Reason of State in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge, 1997.Google Scholar
Belmessous, Saliha “Être français en Nouvelle-France: Identité française et identité coloniale aux dix-septième et dix-huitième siècles.” French Historical Studies 27.3 (2004): 507–40.10.1215/00161071-27-3-507CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berk-Seligson, Susan. The Bilingual Courtroom: Court Interpreters in the Judicial Process. Chicago, 1990.Google Scholar
Bertin-Mourot, Eliane. “La Maréchausseée en Bretagne au XVIIIe siècle (1720–1789).” Thesis, Université de Rennes, 1969.Google Scholar
Bien, David D. The Calas Affair: Persecution, Toleration, and Heresy in Eighteenth-Century Toulouse. Princeton, 1960.Google Scholar
Blockmans, Wim, and Prevenier, Walter. The Promised Lands: The Low Countries under Burgundian Rule, 1369–1530. Trans. Elizabeth Fackelman and Edward Peters. Philadelphia, 1999.10.9783/9780812200706CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brockey, Liam Matthew Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, 1579–1724. Cambridge, 2007.10.4159/9780674028814CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broudic, Fañch. La pratique du breton de l’Ancien Régime à nos jours. Rennes, 1995.Google Scholar
Brunot, Ferdinand Histoire de la langue française des origines à nos jours. 13 vols. Paris, 1905–53.Google Scholar
Burke, Peter The Art of Conversation. Ithaca, 1993.Google Scholar
Burke, Peter Languages and Communities in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge, 2004.10.1017/CBO9780511617362CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burke, Peter, and Porter, Roy, eds. The Social History of Language. Cambridge, 1987.Google Scholar
Burke, Peter, eds. Language, Self and Society: A Social History of Language. Cambridge, 1991.Google Scholar
Cassan, Michel “Officiers ‘moyens,’ officiers seigneuriaux: Quelques perspectives de recherche.” Les Cahiers du Centre de Recherches Historiques 27 (2001): 2–10.Google Scholar
Castan, Nicole “La justice en question en France à la fin de l’Ancien Régime.” Déviance et Société 7.1 (1983): 23–34.10.3406/ds.1983.1771CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castan, Yves “Les Languedociens du XVIIIe siècle et l’obstacle de la langue écrite.” In France du nord et France du midi. Vol. 1 of Actes du 96e Congrès National des Société Savantes: Section d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, 73–84. Paris, 1976.Google Scholar
Cavallo, Guglielmo, and Chartier, Roger. Histoire de la lecture dans le monde occidental. Paris, 1997.Google Scholar
Caverel, Philippe de, ed. Ambassade en Espagne et en Portugal (en 1582) de R. P. en Dieu Dom Jean Sarrazin, abbé de St.-Vaast. Arras, 1858.Google Scholar
Charnay, Annie, ed. Le Procès de Jean Gaffié dit lo monge de Caudaval médecin empirique et voleur vagabond 1522–1523. Toulouse, 1991.Google Scholar
Charnay, Annie, ed. Paroles de voleurs: Gens de sac et de corde en pays toulousain au début du XVIe siècle. Paris, 1998.Google Scholar
Clanchy, Michael T. From Memory to Written Record: England 1066–1307. London, 1993.Google Scholar
Cohen, Esther The Modulated Scream: Pain in Late Medieval Culture. Chicago, 2010.10.7208/chicago/9780226112695.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Paul “Courtly French, Learned Latin, and Peasant Patois: The Making of a National Language in Early Modern France.” PhD diss., Princeton University, 2001.Google Scholar
Cohen, Paul “Qu’est-ce que c’est que le français? Les destins d’une catégorie linguistique, 15e–18e siècle.” In Repenser l’histoire du français?, ed. Dominique Lagorgette, 139–62. Chambéry, 2015.Google Scholar
Coras, Jean de Arrest Memorable Du Parlement De Tolose, Contenant une histoire prodigieuse, de nostre temps. Lyon, Antoine Vincent, 1561.Google Scholar
Czeitschner, Susanne “Discourse, Hegemony and Polyglossia in the Judicial System of Trieste in the 19th Century.” In Diglossia and Power: Language Policies and Practice in the 19th Century Habsburg Empire, ed. Rosita Rindler Schjerve, 69–105. Berlin, 2003.Google Scholar
Dakhlia, Jocelyne Lingua Franca: Histoire d’une langue métisse en Méditerranée. Arles, 2008.Google Scholar
Davis, Natalie Zemon “Printing and the People.” In Society and Culture in Early Modern France, 189–226. Stanford, 1975.Google Scholar
Davis, Natalie Zemon “Les conteurs de Montaillou.” Annales: Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations 34.1 (1979): 61–73.10.3406/ahess.1979.294022CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, Natalie Zemon Fiction in the Archives: Pardon Tales and Their Tellers in Sixteenth-Century France. Stanford, 1987.Google Scholar
Desrues, François. Description Contenant Toutes Les Singularitez Des Plus Celebres Villes Et Places Remarquables Du Royaume De France. . . . Reveu Corrige Et Augmente Du Sommaire De Lestat Cartes Des Provinces Et De Quelques Portraitz Des Plus Signalees Villes Dudict Royaume. Rouen, David Geffroy, [1630].Google Scholar
Dewald, Jonathan The Formation of a Provincial Nobility: The Magistrates of the Parlement of Rouen, 1499–1610. Princeton, 1980.10.1515/9781400853762CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dolan, Claire, ed. Entre justice et justiciables: Les auxiliaires de la justice du Moyen Âge au XXe siècle. Québec, 2005.Google Scholar
Dubuisson-Aubenay, . Itinéraire de Bretagne en 1636. 2 vols. Ed. Léon Maitre and Paul de Berthou. Nantes, 1898–1902.Google Scholar
Durand, Bernard, and Otis-Cour, Leah, eds. La torture judiciaire: Approches historiques et juridiques. 2 vols. Lille, 2002.Google Scholar
Dursteler, Eric “Language and Identity in the Early Modern Mediterranean.” In Mediterranean Identities in the Premodern Era: Islands, Entrepôts, Empires, ed. John Watkins and Kathryn Reyerson, 35–52. Farnham, 2014.Google Scholar
Durston, Alan Pastoral Quechua: The History of Christian Translation in Colonial Peru, 1550–1650. Notre Dame, 2007.Google Scholar
Du Val, Pierre Description De La France, Et De Ses Provinces. Paris, Jean du Puis, 1663.Google Scholar
Fabre, Daniel “Introduction: Seize terrains d’écriture.” In Par écrit: Ethnologie des écritures quotidiennes, ed. Daniel Fabre, 1–56. Paris, 1997.10.4000/books.editionsmsh.3949CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiorelli, Piero La tortura giudiziaria nel diritto comune. 2 vols. Rome, 1953–54.Google Scholar
Foucault, Michel Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Trans. Alan Sheridan. 2nd ed. New York, 1995.Google Scholar
Fraher, Richard M. “Conviction according to Conscience: The Medieval Jurists’ Debate Concerning Judicial Discretion and the Law of Proof.” Law and History Review 7.1 (1989): 23–88.10.2307/743777CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Froidour, Louis “Louis de Froidour en Pays Basque.” Eds. H. de Coincy and O. Densusianu. Bulletin de la Société des Sciences, Lettres, Arts et Études Régionales de Bayonne, nouvelle série, no. 2 (1928): 213–49.Google Scholar
Garrioch, David “Verbal Insults in Eighteenth-Century Paris.” In The Social History of Language, ed. Peter Burke and Roy Porter, 104–19. Cambridge, 1987.Google Scholar
Garrison, Janine L’Affaire Calas: Miroir des passions françaises. Paris, 2004.Google Scholar
Ginzburg, Carlo The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller. Trans. John Tedeschi and Anne Tedeschi. Baltimore, 1980.Google Scholar
Ginzburg, Carlo “L’inquisitore come antropologo.” In Il filo e le tracce: Vero falso finto, 270–80. Milan, 2006.Google Scholar
Goudelin, Pierre Le Ramelet mondin et autres oeuvres: Texte établi d’après les éditions de 1617, 1621, 1637, 1638 et 1647/48, transcription graphique, introduction et notes. Ed. Philippe Gardy. Aix-en-Provence, 1984.Google Scholar
Gray, Edward G. New World Babel: Language and Nations in Early America. Princeton, 1999.10.1515/9781400864966CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isambert, F. A., et al, eds. Recueil général des anciennes lois françaises depuis l’an 420 jusqu'à la Révolution de 1789. 29 vols. Paris, 1821–33.Google Scholar
Jeanneret, Michel “La littérature et la voix: attraits et mirages de l’oral au XVIe siècle.” In Naissances, Renaissances: Moyen Âge-XVIe siècle, ed. Frank Lestringant and Michel Zink, 212–25. Vol. 1 of Histoire de la France littéraire, ed. Michel Prigent. Paris, 2006.Google Scholar
Jousse, Daniel Traité De La Justice Criminelle De France. 4 vols. Paris, Debure Père, 1771.Google Scholar
Krause, Virginia Witchcraft, Demonology, and Confession in Early Modern France. Cambridge, 2015.10.1017/CBO9781139696685CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kremnitz, Georg, ed. Histoire sociale des langues de France. Rennes, 2013.Google Scholar
La Bruyère, Jean de. Les caractères. Ed. Robert Garapon. Paris, 1962.Google Scholar
La Charité, Raymond C. “Refléxion-divertissement et intertextualité: Rabelais et l’Ecolier limousin.” In Textes et intertextes: Études sur le XVIe siècle pour Alfred Glauser, ed. Floyd Gray and Marcel Tetel, 93–103. Paris, 1979.Google Scholar
Lancre, Pierre de Tableau De L’Inconstance Des Mauvais Anges Et Demons. Paris: Jean Berjon, 1612.Google Scholar
Langbein, John H. Torture and the Law of Proof: Europe and England in the Ancien Régime. Chicago, 1977.10.7208/chicago/9780226922614.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lea, Henry Charles A History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages. 3 vols. New York, 1887.Google Scholar
Lea, Henry Charles A History of the Inquisition in Spain. 4 vols. New York, 1906–07.Google Scholar
Leahey, Margaret J. “‘Comment peut un muet prescher l’évangile?’: Jesuit Missionaries and the Native Languages of New France.” French Historical Studies 19.1 (1995): 105–31.10.2307/286901CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Le Bouvier, Gilles Le Livre de la Description des Pays. Ed. E.-T. Hamy. Paris, 1908.Google Scholar
Le Menn, Gwennolé. “Les Bretons bretonnants d’après quelques textes et récits de voyage (XIVe–XVIIe siècles).” Mémoires de la Société d’Histoire et d’Archéologie de Bretagne 61 (1984): 105–34.Google Scholar
Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. Montaillou: Promised Land of Error. Trans. Barbara Bray. New York, 1978.Google Scholar
Levack, Brian P. The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe. 3rd ed. Abingdon, 2006.Google Scholar
Lusignan, Serge “Langue française et société du XIIIe au XVe siècle.” In Nouvelle histoire de la langue française, ed. Jacques Chaurand, 93–143. Paris, 1999.Google Scholar
Marchello-Nizia, Christiane. Histoire de la langue française aux XIVe et XVe siècles. 2nd ed. Paris, 1992.Google Scholar
Martin, John Jeffries Myths of Renaissance Individualism. Hampshire, 2004.10.1057/9780230535756CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, John Jeffries “Tortured Testimonies.” Acta Histriae 19.3 (2011): 375–92.Google Scholar
Merback, Mitchell B. The Thief, the Cross and the Wheel: Pain and the Spectacle of Punishment in Medieval and Renaissance Europe. Chicago, 1999.Google Scholar
Metcalf, Aleida C. Go-Betweens and the Colonization of Brazil, 1500–1600. Austin, 2005.Google Scholar
Mignolo, Walter D. “On the Colonization of Amerindian Languages and Memories: Renaissance Theories of Writing and the Discontinuity of the Classical Tradition.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 34.2 (1992): 301–30.10.1017/S0010417500017709CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montaigne, Michel de Essays. Trans. Donald M. Frame. Stanford, 1988.Google Scholar
Montazel, Laurence “Les parlements de France et la torture judiciaire du XVe au XVIIIe siècle.” In La torture judiciaire: Approches historiques et juridiques, ed. Bernard Durand and Leah Otis-Cour, 2:613–41. Lille, 2002.Google Scholar
Monter, E. William. Witchcraft in France and Switzerland: The Borderlands during the Reformation. Ithaca, 1976.Google Scholar
Morris, David B. The Culture of Pain. Berkeley, 1991.Google Scholar
Moscoso, Javier Pain: A Cultural History. Basingstoke, 2012.10.1057/9781137284235CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muchembled, Robert Le temps des supplices: De l’obéissance sous les rois absolus, XVe–XVIIIe siècle. 1992. Reprint, Paris, 2006.Google Scholar
Münster, Sebastien. La Cosmographie Universelle, Contenant la situation de toutes les parties du monde, avec leurs proprietez & appartenances. Henry Pierre, 1565.Google Scholar
Ordonnances des rois de France: Règne de François Ier. 9 vols. Paris, 1902–89.Google Scholar
Peters, Edward Torture. 1985. Reprint, New York, 1986.Google Scholar
Pinson-Ramin, Véronique. “La Torture judiciaire en Bretagne au XVIIe siècle.” Revue Historique du Droit Français et Étranger 72.4 (1994): 549–68.Google Scholar
Pitton, Jean-Scholastique. Histoire De La Ville D’Aix Capitale De La Provence. Aix, Charles David, 1666.Google Scholar
Platter, Félix, and Platter, Thomas. Félix Et Thomas Platter à Montpellier, 1552–1559, 1595–1599: Notes De Voyage De Deux Étudiants Bâlois. Trans. M. L. Kieffer. Montpellier, 1892.Google Scholar
Plessix-Buisset, Christiane. Le criminel devant ses juges en Bretagne aux 16e et 17e siècles. Paris, 1988.Google Scholar
Rabelais, François. Oeuvres complètes. Ed. Mireille Huchon. Paris, 1994.Google Scholar
Rafael, Vicente L. Contracting Colonialism: Translation and Christian Conversion in Tagalog Society under Early Spanish Rule. Ithaca, 1988.Google Scholar
Rebuffi, Pierre Commentarii In Constitutiones Seu Ordinationes Regias Non Solumiuris Studiosis , Verum Etiam Pragmaticis Utilissimi. 2 vols. Lyon, Claudium Sennetonium, 1567.Google Scholar
Roper, Lyndal Witch Craze: Terror and Fantasy in Baroque Germany. New Haven, 2004.Google Scholar
Rothman, E. Natalie. Brokering Empire: Trans-Imperial Subjects between Venice and Istanbul. Ithaca, 2011.10.7591/cornell/9780801449079.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sbriccoli, Mario “‘Tormentum idest torquere mentem’: Processo inquisitorio e interrogatorio per tortura nell’Italia comunale.” In La parola all’accusato, ed. Jean-Claude Maire Vigueur and Agostino Paravicini Gabliani, 17–32. Palermo, 1991.Google Scholar
Scaliger, Joseph Scaligerana Ou Bons mots, Rencontres Agreables, Et Remarques Judicieuses & Sçavantes de J. Scaliger. Avec Des Notes de Mr. Le Fevre, & de Mr. de Colomies.... Cologne, 1695.Google Scholar
Scarry, Elaine The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World. New York, 1985.Google Scholar
Schnapper, Bernard “La répression pénale au XVIe siècle. L’exemple du Parlement de Bordeaux (1510–1565).” Recueil de Mémoires et Travaux publié par la Société d’Histoire du Droit et des Institutions des Anciens Pays de Droit Écrit 8 (1971): 1–54.Google Scholar
Schnapper, Bernard “La justice criminelle rendue par le Parlement de Paris sous le règne de François 1er.” Revue Historique de Droit Français et Étranger 52.2 (1974): 252–84.Google Scholar
Silverman, Lisa Tortured Subjects: Pain, Truth and Body in Early Modern France. Chicago, 2001.10.7208/chicago/9780226757520.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soman, Alfred “La justice criminelle au XVIe–XVIIe siècles: Le Parlement de Paris et les sièges subalternes.” In La faute, la répression et le pardon, 15–52. Vol. 1 of Actes du 107e Congrès National des Sociétés Savantes. Section de Philologie et d’Histoire jusqu’à 1610. Paris, 1984.Google Scholar
Spierenburg, Pieter Written in Blood: Fatal Attraction in Enlightenment Amsterdam. Columbus, 2004.Google Scholar
Stock, Brian The Implications of Literacy: Written Language and Models of Interpretation in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries. Princeton, 1983.Google Scholar
Stokes, Laura Demons of Urban Reform: Early European Witch Trials and Criminal Justice, 1430–1530. New York, 2011.10.1057/9780230309043CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Streuver, Nancy S. “The Study of Language and the Study of History.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 4.3 (1974): 401–15.10.2307/202484CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trotter, David “‘Si le français n’y peut aller’: Villers-Cotterêts and Mixed-Language Documents from the Pyrenees.” In Conceptions of Europe in Renaissance France, ed. David Cowling, 77–97. Amsterdam, 2006.Google Scholar
Ullmann, Walter “Reflections on Medieval Torture.” Juridical Review 56 (1944): 123–37.Google Scholar
Veinstein, Gilles “L’administration ottomane et le problème des interprètes.” In Études sur les villes du Proche-Orient XVIe–XIXe siècle: Hommage à André Raymond, ed. Brigitte Marino, 65–79. Damas, 2001.Google Scholar
Venuti, Lawrence The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation. London, 1995.10.4324/9780203360064CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vigueur, Jean-Claude Maire, and Gabliani, Agostino Paravicini, eds. La parola all’accusato. Palermo, 1991.Google Scholar
Waquet, Françoise. Latin, or the Empire of a Sign. Trans. John Howe. London, 2001.Google Scholar
Whalley, Joyce Irene The Art of Calligraphy: Western Europe and America. London, 1980.Google Scholar