Hostname: page-component-cb9f654ff-h4f6x Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-09-06T13:56:36.178Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Buprenorphine: prospective novel therapy for depression and PTSD

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 March 2020

Caitlin A. Madison  and
Shoshana Eitan
Caitlin A. Madison
Affiliation:
Behavioral and Cellular Neuroscience, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, 4235 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, USA
Shoshana Eitan*
Affiliation:
Behavioral and Cellular Neuroscience, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, 4235 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, USA
*
Author for correspondence: Shoshana Eitan, E-mail: seitan@tamu.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are leading causes of disability and loss of life by suicide. Currently, there are less than satisfactory medical solutions to treat these mental disorders. Here, we explore recent preclinical and clinical studies demonstrating the potential of using buprenorphine to treat major depressive disorder, treatment-resistant depression, and PTSD.

Method

Bibliographic databases were searched to include preclinical and clinical studies demonstrating the therapeutic potential of buprenorphine and the involvement of the kappa opioid receptor (KOR) in mediating these effects.

Results

Original clinical studies examining the effectiveness of buprenorphine to treat depression were mixed. The majority of participants in the PTSD studies were males and suffer from chronic pain and/or substance use disorders. Nonetheless, these recent studies and analyses established proof of concept warranting farther investigations. Additionally, KOR likely mediates the antidepressant and some of the anxiolytic effects of buprenorphine. Still, it appears that the full spectrum of buprenorphine's beneficial effects might be due to activity at other opioid receptors as well.

Conclusions

Pharmaceuticals' abilities to treat medical conditions directly relates to their ability to act upon the endogenous biological systems related to the conditions. Thus, these recent findings are likely a reflection of the central role that the endogenous opioid system has in these mental illnesses. Further studies are necessary to study the involvement of endogenous opioid systems, and specifically KOR, in mediating buprenorphine's beneficial effects and the ability to treat these medical conditions while minimizing risks for misuse and diversion.

Keywords

Chronic painopioid use disorders (OUD)post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)suicidal ideationtreatment-resistant depression (TRD)

Information

Type
Review Article
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 50 , Issue 6 , April 2020 , pp. 881 - 893
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Ahmadi, J., Jahromi, M. S., & Ehsaei, Z. (2018). The effectiveness of different singly administered high doses of buprenorphine in reducing suicidal ideation in acutely depressed people with co-morbid opiate dependence: A randomized, double-blind, clinical trial. Trials, 19, 462.10.1186/s13063-018-2843-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alexander, W. (2012). Pharmacotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in combat veterans: Focus on antidepressants and atypical antipsychotic agents. Pharmacy and Therapeutics, 37, 32–38.Google ScholarPubMed
Almatroudi, A., Husbands, S. M., Bailey, C. P., & Bailey, S. J. (2015). Combined administration of buprenorphine and naltrexone produces antidepressant-like effects in mice. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 29, 812–821.10.1177/0269881115586937CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Foundation for Suicide Prevention (2019). Suicide claims more lives than war, murder, and natural disasters combined. Retrieved from https://www.theovernight.org/?fuseaction=cms.page&id=1034. Accessed 7 May 2019.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (2013a). Depressive Disorders. In Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th ed. Retrieved from https://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.dsm04.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (2013b). Trauma and Stressor-related Disorders. In Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th ed. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.dsm07.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Psychological Association (2017). Clinical Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in Adults. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/ptsd.pdf.Google Scholar
American Psychological Association (2019). Clinical Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Depression Across Three Age Cohorts: Guideline Development Panel for the Treatment of Depressive Disorders. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/depression-guideline/guideline.pdf. Accessed 19 February 2020.Google Scholar
Asmundson, G. J., Coons, M. J., Taylor, S., & Katz, J. (2002). PTSD and the experience of pain: research and clinical implications of shared vulnerability and mutual maintenance models. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 47, 930–937.10.1177/070674370204701004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asmundson, G. J., & Katz, J. (2008). Understanding pain and posttraumatic stress disorder comorbidity: Do pathological responses to trauma alter the perception of pain? Pain, 138, 247–249.10.1016/j.pain.2008.06.020CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bazazi, A. R., Yokell, M., Fu, J. J., Rich, J. D., & Zaller, N. D. (2011). Illicit use of buprenorphine/naloxone among injecting and noninjecting opioid users. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 5, 175–180.10.1097/ADM.0b013e3182034e31CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beardsley, P. M., Howard, J. L., Shelton, K. L., & Carroll, F. I. (2005). Differential effects of the novel kappa opioid receptor antagonist, JDTic, on reinstatement of cocaine-seeking induced by footshock stressors vs cocaine primes and its antidepressant-like effects in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 183, 118–126.10.1007/s00213-005-0167-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benjet, C., Bromet, E., Karam, E. G., Kessler, R. C., McLaughlin, K. A., Ruscio, A. M., … Koenen, K. C. (2016). The epidemiology of traumatic event exposure worldwide: Results from the World Mental Health Survey Consortium. Psychological Medicine, 46, 327–343.10.1017/S0033291715001981CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bershad, A. K., Jaffe, J. H., Childs, E., & de Wit, H. (2015). Opioid partial agonist buprenorphine dampens responses to psychosocial stress in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 52, 281–288.10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.12.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bershad, A. K., Ruiz, N. A., & de Wit, H. (2018). Effects of buprenorphine on responses to emotional stimuli in individuals with a range of mood symptomatology. The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 21, 120–127.10.1093/ijnp/pyx077CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bershad, A. K., Seiden, J. A., & de Wit, H. (2016). Effects of buprenorphine on responses to social stimuli in healthy adults. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 63, 43–49.10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.09.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bidlack, J. M., Knapp, B. I., Deaver, D. R., Plotnikava, M., Arnelle, D., Wonsey, A. M., … Namchuk, M. N. (2018). In vitro pharmacological characterization of buprenorphine, samidorphan, and combinations being developed as an adjunctive treatment of major depressive disorder. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 367, 267–281.10.1124/jpet.118.249839CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bielefeldt, A. O., Danborg, P. B., & Gotzsche, P. C. (2016). Precursors to suicidality and violence on antidepressants: Systematic review of trials in adult healthy volunteers. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 109, 381–392.10.1177/0141076816666805CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bjorkenstam, C., Moller, J., Ringback, G., Salmi, P., Hallqvist, J., & Ljung, R. (2013). An association between initiation of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and suicide – a nationwide register-based case-crossover study. PLoS ONE, 8, e73973.10.1371/journal.pone.0073973CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blum, K., Gold, M., Clark, H. W., Dushaj, K., & Badgaiyan, R. D. (2016). Should the United States Government repeal restrictions on buprenorphine/naloxone treatment? Substance Use and Misuse, 51, 1674–1679.10.1080/10826084.2016.1200097CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bobo, W. V., Vande Voort, J. L., Croarkin, P. E., Leung, J. G., Tye, S. J., & Frye, M. A. (2016). Ketamine for treatment-resistant unipolar and bipolar major depression: Critical review and implications for clinical practice. Depression and Anxiety, 33, 698–710.10.1002/da.22505CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bodkin, J. A., Zornberg, G. L., Lukas, S. E., & Cole, J. O. (1995). Buprenorphine treatment of refractory depression. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 15, 49–57.10.1097/00004714-199502000-00008CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brenner, P., Brandt, L., Li, G., DiBernardo, A., Boden, R., & Reutfors, J. (2019). Treatment-resistant depression as risk factor for substance use disorders-a nation-wide register-based cohort study. Addiction.10.1111/add.14596CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breslau, N. (2009). The epidemiology of trauma, PTSD, and other posttrauma disorders. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 10, 198–210.10.1177/1524838009334448CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Browne, C. A., Falcon, E., Robinson, S. A., Berton, O., & Lucki, I. (2018). Reversal of stress-induced social interaction deficits by buprenorphine. The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 21, 164–174.10.1093/ijnp/pyx079CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Browne, C. A., & Lucki, I. (2019). Targeting opioid dysregulation in depression for the development of novel therapeutics. Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 201, 51–76.10.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.04.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryant, R. A., Creamer, M., O'Donnell, M., Silove, D., & McFarlane, A. C. (2009). A study of the protective function of acute morphine administration on subsequent posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 65, 438–440.10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.10.032CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burg, M. M., & Soufer, R. (2016). Post-traumatic stress disorder and cardiovascular disease. Current Cardiology Reports, 18, 94.10.1007/s11886-016-0770-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burke, N. N., Ferdousi, M., Deaver, D. R., Finn, D. P., Roche, M., & Kelly, J. P. (2019). Locomotor and anti-immobility effects of buprenorphine in combination with the opioid receptor modulator samidorphan in rats. Neuropharmacology, 146, 327–336.10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.12.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carr, G. V., Bangasser, D. A., Bethea, T., Young, M., Valentino, R. J., & Lucki, I. (2010). Antidepressant-like effects of kappa-opioid receptor antagonists in Wistar Kyoto rats. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 752–763.10.1038/npp.2009.183CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cepeda, M. S., Reps, J., Fife, D., Blacketer, C., Stang, P., & Ryan, P. (2018). Finding treatment-resistant depression in real-world data: How a data-driven approach compares with expert-based heuristics. Depression and Anxiety, 35, 220–228.10.1002/da.22705CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, M. H., Lin, W. C., Wu, H. J., Cheng, C. M., Li, C. T., Hong, C. J., … Su, T. P. (2019). Antisuicidal effect, BDNF Val66Met polymorphism, and low-dose ketamine infusion: Reanalysis of adjunctive ketamine study of Taiwanese patients with treatment-resistant depression (AKSTP-TRD). Journal of Affective Disorders, 251, 162–169.10.1016/j.jad.2019.03.075CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Comer, S. D., & Collins, E. D. (2002). Self-administration of intravenous buprenorphine and the buprenorphine/naloxone combination by recently detoxified heroin abusers. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 303, 695–703.10.1124/jpet.102.038141CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Comer, S. D., Collins, E. D., & Fischman, M. W. (2002). Intravenous buprenorphine self-administration by detoxified heroin abusers. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 301, 266–276.10.1124/jpet.301.1.266CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Comer, S. D., Sullivan, M. A., & Walker, E. A. (2005). Comparison of intravenous buprenorphine and methadone self-administration by recently detoxified heroin-dependent individuals. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 315, 1320–1330.10.1124/jpet.105.090423CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Comer, S. D., Sullivan, M. A., Whittington, R. A., Vosburg, S. K., & Kowalczyk, W. J. (2008). Abuse liability of prescription opioids compared to heroin in morphine-maintained heroin abusers. Neuropsychopharmacology, 33, 1179–1191.10.1038/sj.npp.1301479CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cordova, M. J., Andrykowski, M. A., Kenady, D. E., McGrath, P. C., Sloan, D. A., & Redd, W. H. (1995). Frequency and correlates of posttraumatic-stress-disorder-like symptoms after treatment for breast cancer. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 981–986.10.1037/0022-006X.63.6.981CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crist, R. C., & Berrettini, W. H. (2014). Pharmacogenetics of OPRM1. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 123, 25–33.10.1016/j.pbb.2013.10.018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cristina-Silva, C., Martins, V., Gargaglioni, L. H., & Bicego, K. C. (2017). Mu and kappa opioid receptors of the periaqueductal gray stimulate and inhibit thermogenesis, respectively, during psychological stress in rats. Pflügers Archiv: European Journal of Physiology, 469, 1151–1161.10.1007/s00424-017-1966-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dahan, A., Aarts, L., & Smith, T. W. (2010). Incidence, reversal, and prevention of opioid-induced respiratory depression. Anesthesiology, 112, 226–238.10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181c38c25CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dahlke, L. A., Sable, J. J., & Andrasik, F. (2017). Behavioral therapy: Emotion and pain, a common anatomical background. Neurological Sciences, 38, 157–161.10.1007/s10072-017-2928-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dansie, E. J., Heppner, P., Furberg, H., Goldberg, J., Buchwald, D., & Afari, N. (2012). The comorbidity of self-reported chronic fatigue syndrome, post-traumatic stress disorder, and traumatic symptoms. Psychosomatics, 53, 250–257.10.1016/j.psym.2011.08.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Darke, S., Hetherington, K., Ross, J., Lynskey, M., & Teesson, M. (2004). Non-injecting routes of administration among entrants to three treatment modalities for heroin dependence. Drug and Alcohol Review, 23, 177–183.10.1080/095952304100017044163CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidson, J. R. (2006). Pharmacologic treatment of acute and chronic stress following trauma: 2006. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 67 (Suppl 2), 34–39.Google ScholarPubMed
Dawood, T., Anderson, J., Barton, D., Lambert, E., Esler, M., Hotchkin, E., … Lambert, G. (2007). Reduced overflow of BDNF from the brain is linked with suicide risk in depressive illness. Molecular Psychiatry, 12, 981–983.10.1038/sj.mp.4002059CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doernberg, M. B., Krawczyk, N. B., Agus, D. J., & Fingerhood, M. M. (2019). Demystifying buprenorphine misuse: Has fear of diversion gotten in the way of addressing the opioid crisis? Substance Abuse, 40, 148–153.10.1080/08897077.2019.1572052CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donahue, R. J., Landino, S. M., Golden, S. A., Carroll, F. I., Russo, S. J., & Carlezon, W. A. Jr. (2015). Effects of acute and chronic social defeat stress are differentially mediated by the dynorphin/kappa-opioid receptor system. Behavioural Pharmacology 26, 654–663.10.1097/FBP.0000000000000155CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drapeau, C. W., & McIntosh, J. L. (2018). U.S.A. suicide 2017: Official final data. Washington DC: American Association of Suicidology. Retrieved from http://www.suicidology.org. Accessed 7 May 2019.Google Scholar
Driessen, M., Schulte, S., Luedecke, C., Schaefer, I., Sutmann, F., Ohlmeier, M., … Havemann-Reinecke, U. (2008). Trauma and PTSD in patients with alcohol, drug, or dual dependence: A multi-center study. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 32, 481–488.10.1111/j.1530-0277.2007.00591.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ecker, A. H., & Hundt, N. (2018). Posttraumatic stress disorder in opioid agonist therapy: A review. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 10, 636–642.10.1037/tra0000312CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ehrich, E., Turncliff, R., Du, Y., Leigh-Pemberton, R., Fernandez, E., Jones, R., & Fava, M. (2015). Evaluation of opioid modulation in major depressive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology, 40, 1448–1455.10.1038/npp.2014.330CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisendrath, S., Chartier, M., & McLane, M. (2011). Adapting mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for treatment-resistant depression: A clinical case study. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 18, 362–370.10.1016/j.cbpra.2010.05.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emery, M. A., & Eitan, S. (2019a). Drug-specific differences in the ability of opioid to manage burn pain. Burns: Journal of the International Society for Burn Injuries, S0305-4179, 30598–30599.Google Scholar
Emery, M. A., & Eitan, S. (2019b). Members of the same pharmacological family are not alike: Different opioids, different consequences, hope for the opioid crisis? Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 92, 428–449.10.1016/j.pnpbp.2019.02.010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emrich, H. M., Vogt, P., & Herz, A. (1982a). Possible antidepressive effects of opioids: Action of buprenorphine. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 398, 108–112.10.1111/j.1749-6632.1982.tb39483.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emrich, H. M., Vogt, P., Herz, A., & Kissling, W. (1982b). Antidepressant effects of buprenorphine. Lancet (London, England), 2, 709.10.1016/S0140-6736(82)90727-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Falcon, E., Browne, C. A., Leon, R. M., Fleites, V. C., Sweeney, R., Kirby, L. G., & Lucki, I. (2016). Antidepressant-like effects of buprenorphine are mediated by kappa opioid receptors. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41, 2344–2351.10.1038/npp.2016.38CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Falcon, E., Maier, K., Robinson, S. A., Hill-Smith, T. E., & Lucki, I. (2015). Effects of buprenorphine on behavioral tests for antidepressant and anxiolytic drugs in mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 232, 907–915.10.1007/s00213-014-3723-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fava, M., Evins, A. E., Dorer, D. J., & Schoenfeld, D. A. (2003). The problem of the placebo response in clinical trials for psychiatric disorders: Culprits, possible remedies, and a novel study design approach. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 72, 115–127.10.1159/000069738CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fava, M., Memisoglu, A., Thase, M. E., Bodkin, J. A., Trivedi, M. H., de Somer, M., … Ehrich, E. (2016). Opioid modulation with buprenorphine/samidorphan as adjunctive treatment for inadequate response to antidepressants: A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 173, 499–508.10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15070921CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fava, M., Thase, M. E., Trivedi, M. H., Ehrich, E., Martin, W. F., Memisoglu, A., … Pathak, S. (2018). Opioid system modulation with buprenorphine/samidorphan combination for major depressive disorder: Two randomized controlled studies. Molecular Psychiatry. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-018-0284-1.Google ScholarPubMed
FDA (2014). Drug Approvals and Databases, Medication Guides: Paxil (paroxetine hydrochloride), Reference ID: 4036398. Retrieved from https://www.accessdata.Google Scholar
FDA (2014–2017). Drug Approvals and Databases, Medication Guides: BUTRANS, Reference ID: 4167002. Retrieved from https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2017/021306s027lbl.pdf#page=40; BELBUCA, Reference ID: 4028880. Retrieved from https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2016/207932s002lbl.pdf#page=28. Accessed 7 May 2019.Google Scholar
FDA (2016). Drug Approvals and Databases, Medication Guides: Zoloft (sertraline hydrochloride), Reference ID: 4192847. Retrieved from https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2017/019839s091lbl.pdf#page=27. Accessed 7 May 2019.Google Scholar
FDA (2018a). Drug Approvals and Databases, Medication Guides: Subutex and Suboxone, Reference ID: 4276171. Retrieved from https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2018/022410s033020732s019020733s023lbl.pdf#page=32. Accessed 7 May 2019.Google Scholar
FDA (2018b). FDA Briefing Document. Psychopharmacologic Drugs Advisory Committee (PDAC) and Drug Safety and Risk Management (DSaRM) Advisory Committee Meeting, 1 November 2018. Topic: New Drug Application 210417. Buprenorphine and Samidorphan for the Adjunctive Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder. Retrieved from https://www.fda.gov/media/121359/download. Accessed 7 May 2019.Google Scholar
Ferrari, A. J., Charlson, F. J., Norman, R. E., Patten, S. B., Freedman, G., Murray, C. J., … Whiteford, H. A. (2013). Burden of depressive disorders by country, sex, age, and year: Findings from the global burden of disease study 2010. PLoS Medicine, 10, e1001547.10.1371/journal.pmed.1001547CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fife, D., Reps, J., Soledad Cepeda, M., Stang, P., Blacketer, M., & Singh, J. (2018). Treatment resistant depression incidence estimates from studies of health insurance databases depend strongly on the details of the operating definition. Heliyon, 4, e00707.10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00707CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forman-Hoffman, V, Middleton, J. C., Feltner, C., Gaynes, B. N., Weber, R. P., Bann, C., … Green, J. (2018). AHRQ Comparative Effectiveness Reviews. Psychological and Pharmacological Treatments for Adults with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review Update. Rockville (MD), Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US).Google Scholar
Forsman, J., Masterman, T., Ahlner, J., Isacsson, G., & Hedstrom, A. K. (2019). Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors and the risk of violent suicide: A nationwide postmortem study. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 75, 393–400.10.1007/s00228-018-2586-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Friedman, M. J., Marmar, C. R., Baker, D. G., Sikes, C. R., & Farfel, G. M. (2007). Randomized, double-blind comparison of sertraline and placebo for posttraumatic stress disorder in a department of veterans affairs setting. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 68, 711–720.10.4088/JCP.v68n0508CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fulton, J. J., Calhoun, P. S., Wagner, H. R., Schry, A. R., Hair, L. P., Feeling, N., … Beckham, J. C. (2015). The prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder in Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom (OEF/OIF) veterans: A meta-analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 31, 98–107.10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.02.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galandrin, S., Oligny-Longpre, G., & Bouvier, M. (2007). The evasive nature of drug efficacy: Implications for drug discovery. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 28, 423–430.10.1016/j.tips.2007.06.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gartlehner, G., Wagner, G., Matyas, N., Titscher, V., Greimel, J., Lux, L., … Lohr, K. N. (2017). Pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments for major depressive disorder: Review of systematic reviews. BMJ Open, 7, e014912.10.1136/bmjopen-2016-014912CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaulier, J. M., Charvier, F., Monceaux, F., Marquet, P., & Lachatre, G. (2004). Ingestion of high-dose buprenorphine by a 4 year-old child. Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology, 42, 993–995.Google ScholarPubMed
Ghosh, A., Basu, D., & Avasthi, A. (2018). Buprenorphine-based opioid substitution therapy in India: A few observations, thoughts, and opinions. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 60, 361–366.10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_218_17CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gradus, J. L., Farkas, D. K., Svensson, E., Ehrenstein, V., Lash, T. L., & Toft Sorensen, H. (2017). Posttraumatic stress disorder and gastrointestinal disorders in the Danish population. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.), 28, 354–360.Google ScholarPubMed
Hammad, T. A., Laughren, T., & Racoosin, J. (2006). Suicidality in pediatric patients treated with antidepressant drugs. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 332–339.10.1001/archpsyc.63.3.332CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammamieh, R., Chakraborty, N., De Lima, T. C., Meyerhoff, J., Gautam, A., Muhie, S., … Jett, M. (2012). Murine model of repeated exposures to conspecific trained aggressors simulates features of post-traumatic stress disorder. Behavioural Brain Research, 235, 55–66.Google ScholarPubMed
Hassan, A. N., Foll, B. L., Imtiaz, S., & Rehm, J. (2017). The effect of post-traumatic stress disorder on the risk of developing prescription opioid use disorder: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions III. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 179, 260–266.10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.07.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawton, K., Casanas, I. C. C., Haw, C., & Saunders, K. (2013). Risk factors for suicide in individuals with depression: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 147, 17–28.10.1016/j.jad.2013.01.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayes, B. D., Klein-Schwartz, W., & Doyon, S. (2008). Toxicity of buprenorphine overdoses in children. Pediatrics, 121, e782–e786.10.1542/peds.2007-1774CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henderson, G., & McKnight, A. T. (1997). The orphan opioid receptor and its endogenous ligand – nociceptin/orphanin FQ. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 18, 293–300.10.1016/S0165-6147(97)90645-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hung, C. J., Wu, C. C., Chen, W. Y., Chang, C. Y., Kuan, Y. H., Pan, H. C., … Chen, C. J. (2013). Depression-like effect of prenatal buprenorphine exposure in rats. PLoS ONE, 8, e82262.10.1371/journal.pone.0082262CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ijaz, S., Davies, P., Williams, C. J., Kessler, D., Lewis, G., & Wiles, N. (2018). Psychological therapies for treatment-resistant depression in adults. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 5, Cd010558.Google ScholarPubMed
Jasinski, D. R., Pevnick, J. S., & Griffith, J. D. (1978). Human pharmacology and abuse potential of the analgesic buprenorphine: A potential agent for treating narcotic addiction. Archives of General Psychiatry, 35, 501–516.10.1001/archpsyc.1978.01770280111012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, B., & Richert, T. (2019). Non-prescribed use of methadone and buprenorphine prior to opioid substitution treatment: Lifetime prevalence, motives, and drug sources among people with opioid dependence in five Swedish cities. Harm Reduction Journal, 16, 31.10.1186/s12954-019-0301-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karege, F., Vaudan, G., Schwald, M., Perroud, N., & La Harpe, R. (2005). Neurotrophin levels in postmortem brains of suicide victims and the effects of antemortem diagnosis and psychotropic drugs. Brain Research. Molecular Brain Research, 136, 29–37.10.1016/j.molbrainres.2004.12.020CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karp, J. F., Butters, M. A., Begley, A. E., Miller, M. D., Lenze, E. J., Blumberger, D. M., … Reynolds, C. F. III (2014). Safety, tolerability, and clinical effect of low-dose buprenorphine for treatment-resistant depression in midlife and older adults. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 75, e785–e793.10.4088/JCP.13m08725CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kautzky, A., Dold, M., Bartova, L., Spies, M., Kranz, G. S., Souery, D., … Kasper, S. (2019). Clinical factors predicting treatment resistant depression: Affirmative results from the European multicenter study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 139, 78–88.10.1111/acps.12959CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keilp, J. G., Ellis, S. P., Gorlyn, M., Burke, A. K., Oquendo, M. A., Mann, J. J., & Grunebaum, M. F. (2018). Suicidal ideation declines with improvement in the subjective symptoms of major depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 227, 65–70.10.1016/j.jad.2017.09.018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelley, M. L., Bravo, A. J., Votaw, V. R., Stein, E., Redman, J. C., & Witkiewitz, K. (2019). Opioid and sedative misuse among veterans wounded in combat. Addictive Behaviors, 92, 168–172.10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.12.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kenney, S. R., Anderson, B. J., Bailey, G. L., & Stein, M. D. (2017). The relationship between diversion-related attitudes and sharing and selling buprenorphine. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 78, 43–47.10.1016/j.jsat.2017.04.017CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kieffer, B. L., & Gaveriaux-Ruff, C. (2002). Exploring the opioid system by gene knockout. Progress in Neurobiology, 66, 285–306.10.1016/S0301-0082(02)00008-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kimata, H. (2005). Differential modulation of cerebrospinal fluid neurotrophins in patients with atopic dermatitis who attempted suicide. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66, 1193–1194.10.4088/JCP.v66n0917cCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knoll, A. T., Meloni, E. G., Thomas, J. B., Carroll, F. I., & Carlezon, W. A. Jr. (2007). Anxiolytic-like effects of kappa-opioid receptor antagonists in models of unlearned and learned fear in rats. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 323, 838–845.10.1124/jpet.107.127415CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knoll, A. T., Muschamp, J. W., Sillivan, S. E., Ferguson, D., Dietz, D. M., Meloni, E. G., … Carlezon, W. A. Jr. (2011). Kappa opioid receptor signaling in the basolateral amygdala regulates conditioned fear and anxiety in rats. Biological Psychiatry 70, 425–433.10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.03.017CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koenen, K. C., Ratanatharathorn, A., Ng, L., McLaughlin, K. A., Bromet, E. J., Stein, D. J., … Kessler, R. C. (2017). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the World Mental Health Surveys. Psychological Medicine, 47, 2260–2274.Google ScholarPubMed
KoKoAung, E., Cavenett, S., McArthur, A., & Aromataris, E. (2015). The association between suicidality and treatment with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in older people with major depression: A systematic review. JBI Database of Systematic Reviews and Implementation Reports, 13, 174–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lake, E. P., Mitchell, B. G., Shorter, D. I., Kosten, T., Domingo, C. B., & Walder, A. M. (2019). Buprenorphine for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. The American Journal on Addictions, 28, 86–91.Google ScholarPubMed
Land, B. B., Bruchas, M. R., Lemos, J. C., Xu, M., Melief, E. J., & Chavkin, C. (2008). The dysphoric component of stress is encoded by activation of the dynorphin kappa-opioid system. The Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 407–414.10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4458-07.2008CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, S., Heesch, C., Allison, K., Binns, L., Straw-Wilson, K., & Wendel, C. S. (2017). Hospitalization risk with benzodiazepine and opioid use in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Federal Practitioner, 34, 26s–33s.Google ScholarPubMed
Lee, S., Klein-Schwartz, W., Welsh, C., & Doyon, S. (2013). Medical outcomes associated with nonmedical use of methadone and buprenorphine. The Journal of Emergency Medicine, 45, 199–205.10.1016/j.jemermed.2012.11.104CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, D. J., Schnitzlein, C. W., Wolf, J. P., Vythilingam, M., Rasmusson, A. M., & Hoge, C. W. (2016). Psychotherapy versus pharmacotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: Systemic review and meta-analyses to determine first-line treatments. Depression and Anxiety, 33, 792–806.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leeies, M., Pagura, J., Sareen, J., & Bolton, J. M. (2010). The use of alcohol and drugs to self-medicate symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 27, 731–736.10.1002/da.20677CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, J. M., Zhang, Y., Su, W. J., Liu, L. L., Gong, H., Peng, W., & Jiang, C. L. (2018). Cognitive behavioral therapy for treatment-resistant depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 268, 243–250.10.1016/j.psychres.2018.07.020CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lin, L. A., Lofwall, M. R., Walsh, S. L., Gordon, A. J., & Knudsen, H. K. (2018). Perceptions and practices addressing diversion among US buprenorphine prescribers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 186, 147–153.10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.01.015CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lofwall, M. R., & Walsh, S. L. (2014). A review of buprenorphine diversion and misuse: The current evidence base and experiences from around the world. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 8, 315–326.Google ScholarPubMed
Lutfy, K., & Cowan, A. (2004). Buprenorphine: A unique drug with complex pharmacology. Current Neuropharmacology, 2, 395–402.10.2174/1570159043359477CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mague, S. D., Pliakas, A. M., Todtenkopf, M. S., Tomasiewicz, H. C., Zhang, Y., Stevens, W. C. Jr., … Carlezon, W. A. Jr. (2003). Antidepressant-like effects of kappa-opioid receptor antagonists in the forced swim test in rats. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 305, 323–330.10.1124/jpet.102.046433CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malhi, G. S., Parker, G. B., Crawford, J., Wilhelm, K., & Mitchell, P. B. (2005). Treatment-resistant depression: Resistant to definition? Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 112, 302–309.10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00602.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mandrioli, R., Mercolini, L., Saracino, M. A., & Raggi, M. A. (2012). Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs): Therapeutic drug monitoring and pharmacological interactions. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 19, 1846–1863.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McIntyre, R. S., Filteau, M. J., Martin, L., Patry, S., Carvalho, A., Cha, D. S., … Miguelez, M. (2014). Treatment-resistant depression: Definitions, review of the evidence, and algorithmic approach. Journal of Affective Disorders, 156, 1–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, J. P., Li, S., Valdez, J., Chavkin, T. A., & Chavkin, C. (2006). Social defeat stress-induced behavioral responses are mediated by the endogenous kappa opioid system. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31, 1241–1248.Google ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, J. P., Marton-Popovici, M., & Chavkin, C. (2003). Kappa opioid receptor antagonism and prodynorphin gene disruption block stress-induced behavioral responses. The Journal of Neuroscience, 23, 5674–5683.10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-13-05674.2003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLeay, S. C., Harvey, W. M., Romaniuk, M. N., Crawford, D. H., Colquhoun, D. M., Young, R. M., … Lawford, B. R. (2017). Physical comorbidities of post-traumatic stress disorder in Australian Vietnam War veterans. The Medical Journal of Australia, 206, 251–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Melzack, R., & Casey, K. L. (1968). Sensory, motivational, and central control determinants of pain. In Kenshalo, D. R. (Ed.), The skin senses (pp. 423–439). Springfield: Charles C Thomas.Google Scholar
Merrer, J. L., Becker, J. A. J., Befort, K., & Kieffer, B. L. (2009). Reward processing by the opioid system in the brain. Physiological Reviews, 89, 1379–1412.10.1152/physrev.00005.2009CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mills, K., Teesson, M., Darke, S., & Ross, J. (2007). Reliability of self-reported trauma exposure among people with heroin dependence: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 313–323.10.1002/jts.20219CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mills, K. L., Teesson, M., Ross, J., & Peters, L. (2006). Trauma, PTSD, and substance use disorders: Findings from the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 652–658.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moller, H. J. (2006). Is there evidence for negative effects of antidepressants on suicidality in depressive patients? A systematic review. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256, 476–496.10.1007/s00406-006-0689-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mrazek, D. A., Hornberger, J. C., Altar, C. A., & Degtiar, I. (2014). A review of the clinical, economic, and societal burden of treatment-resistant depression: 1996–2013. Psychiatric Services, 65, 977–987.10.1176/appi.ps.201300059CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mund, B., & Stith, K. (2018). Buprenorphine MAT as an imperfect fix. The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 46, 279–291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine (2017). Pain management and the opioid epidemic: Balancing societal and individual benefits and risks of prescription opioid use. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.17226/24781. Accessed 7 May 2019.Google Scholar
National Center for Biotechnology Information (2019). PubChem Database. Buprenorphine, CID=644073. Retrieved from https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/644073. Accessed 6 May 2019.Google Scholar
National Institute of Mental Health (2019). Statistics: Suicide. Retrieved from https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/suicide.shtml. Accessed 7 May 2019.Google Scholar
NCT02158533 A Study of ALKS 5461 for the Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) – The FORWARD-4 Study. Retrieved from https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02158533. Accessed 7 May 2019.Google Scholar
NCT02158546 A Study of ALKS 5461 for the Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) – The FORWARD-3 Study. Retrieved from https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02158546. Accessed 7 May 2019.Google Scholar
NCT02181231 Buprenorphine Used With Treatment Resistant Depression in Older Adults (IRL Grey B). Retrieved from https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02181231. Accessed 7 May 2019.Google Scholar
NCT02218008 A Study of ALKS 5461 for the Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) – FORWARD-5 Study. Retrieved from https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/results/NCT02218008. Accessed 7 May 2019.Google Scholar
NCT02218736 Fast-Fail Trials in Mood and Anxiety Spectrum Disorders; Kappa Opioid Receptor Phase 2a (FASTMAS_KOR2. Retrieved from https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02218736. Accessed 7 May 2019.Google Scholar
NCT02263248 Incomplete Response in Late-Life Depression: Getting to Remission with Buprenorphine (IRLGREY-B). Retrieved from https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02263248. Accessed 7 May 2019.Google Scholar
Negus, S. S., & Freeman, K. B. (2018). Abuse potential of biased Mu opioid receptor agonists. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 39, 916–919.10.1016/j.tips.2018.08.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norelli, L. J., Smith, H. S., Sher, L., & Blackwood, T. A. (2013). Buprenorphine in the treatment of non-suicidal self-injury: A case series and discussion of the literature. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 25, 323–330.10.1515/ijamh-2013-0069CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norman, S. B., Stein, M. B., Dimsdale, J. E., & Hoyt, D. B. (2008). Pain in the aftermath of trauma is a risk factor for post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine, 38, 533–542.10.1017/S0033291707001389CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Onoye, J., Helm, S., Koyanagi, C., Fukuda, M., Hishinuma, E., Takeshita, J., & Ona, C. (2013). Proportional differences in emergency room adult patients with PTSD, mood disorders, and anxiety for a large ethnically diverse geographic sample. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 24, 928–942.10.1353/hpu.2013.0054CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Rourke, M. C., & Siddiqui, W. (2019). Suicide screening and prevention. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing LLC.Google Scholar
Otte, C., Gold, S. M., Penninx, B. W., Pariante, C. M., Etkin, A., Fava, M., … Schatzberg, A. F. (2016). Major depressive disorder. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 2, 16065.10.1038/nrdp.2016.65CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pabayo, R., Fuller, D., Goldstein, R. B., Kawachi, I., & Gilman, S. E. (2017). Income inequality among American states and the conditional risk of post-traumatic stress disorder. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 52, 1195–1204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Papakostas, G. I., Petersen, T., Pava, J., Masson, E., Worthington, J. J. III, Alpert, J. E., … Nierenberg, A. A. (2003). Hopelessness and suicidal ideation in outpatients with treatment-resistant depression: Prevalence and impact on treatment outcome. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 191, 444–449.10.1097/01.NMD.0000081591.46444.97CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pathak, S., Vince, B., Kelsh, D., Setnik, B., Nangia, N., DiPetrillo, L., … Ehrich, E. (2019a). Abuse potential of samidorphan: A phase I, oxycodone-, pentazocine-, naltrexone-, and placebo-controlled study. The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 59, 218–228.10.1002/jcph.1343CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pathak, S., Vince, B., Kelsh, D., Shram, M. J., Setnik, B., Lu, H., … Ehrich, E. (2019b). Abuse potential of buprenorphine/samidorphan combination compared to buprenorphine and placebo: A phase 1 randomized controlled trial. The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 59, 206–217.10.1002/jcph.1280CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pattinson, K. T. (2008). Opioids and the control of respiration. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 100, 747–758.10.1093/bja/aen094CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peckham, A. M., De La Cruz, A., & Dufresne, R. L. (2018). Kappa opioid receptor antagonism: Are opioids the answer for treatment resistant depression? Mental Health Clinician, 8, 175–183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pickworth, W. B., Johnson, R. E., Holicky, B. A., & Cone, E. J. (1993). Subjective and physiologic effects of intravenous buprenorphine in humans. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 53, 570–576.10.1038/clpt.1993.72CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pietrzak, R. H., Goldstein, R. B., Southwick, S. M., & Grant, B. F. (2011). Prevalence and axis I comorbidity of full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: Results from wave 2 of the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25, 456–465.10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.11.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pietrzak, R. H., Naganawa, M., Huang, Y., Corsi-Travali, S., Zheng, M. Q., Stein, M. B., … Neumeister, A. (2014). Association of in vivo kappa-opioid receptor availability and the transdiagnostic dimensional expression of trauma-related psychopathology. JAMA Psychiatry, 71, 1262–1270.10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.1221CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Polimanti, R., Ratanatharathorn, A., Maihofer, A. X., Choi, K. W., Stein, M. B., Morey, R. A., … Gelernter, J. (2019). Association of economic status and educational attainment with posttraumatic stress disorder: A Mendelian randomization study. JAMA Network Open, 2, e193447.10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.3447CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pompili, M., Baldessarini, R. J., Tondo, L., Innamorati, M., Tatarelli, R., Girardi, P., & De Pisa, E. (2010). Response to intravenous antidepressant treatment by suicidal vs. Nonsuicidal depressed patients. Journal of Affective Disorders, 122, 154–158.10.1016/j.jad.2009.07.018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porto, G. P., Milanesi, L. H., Rubin, M. A., & Mello, C. F. (2015). Effect of morphine on the persistence of long-term memory in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 232, 1747–1753.10.1007/s00213-014-3811-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pradhan, A. A., Perroy, J., Walwyn, W. M., Smith, M. L., Vicente-Sanchez, A., Segura, L., … Evans, C. J. (2016). Agonist-specific recruitment of Arrestin isoforms differentially modify delta opioid receptor function. The Journal of Neuroscience, 36, 3541–3551.10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4124-15.2016CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Price, M., Legrand, A. C., Brier, Z. M. F., & Hebert-Dufresne, L. (2019). The symptoms at the center: Examining the comorbidity of posttraumatic stress disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and depression with network analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 109, 52–58.10.1016/j.jpsychires.2018.11.016CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rahikainen, A. L., Vauhkonen, P., Pett, H., Palo, J. U., Haukka, J., Ojanpera, I., … Sajantila, A. (2019). Completed suicides of citalopram users – the role of CYP genotypes and adverse drug interactions. International Journal of Legal Medicine, 133, 353–363.10.1007/s00414-018-1927-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reed, B., Fang, N., Mayer-Blackwell, B., Chen, S., Yuferov, V., Zhou, Y., & Kreek, M. J. (2012). Chromatin alterations in response to forced swimming underlie increased prodynorphin transcription. Neuroscience, 220, 109–118.10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.06.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ribot, T. (1896). La psychologie des sentiment. Paris: Felix Alcan.Google Scholar
Richardson, J. D., Ketcheson, F., King, L., Shnaider, P., Marlborough, M., Thompson, A., & Elhai, J. D. (2017). Psychiatric comorbidity pattern in treatment-seeking veterans. Psychiatry Research, 258, 488–493.10.1016/j.psychres.2017.08.091CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, A. L., Gilman, S. E., Breslau, J., Breslau, N., & Koenen, K. C. (2011). Race/ethnic differences in exposure to traumatic events, development of post-traumatic stress disorder, and treatment-seeking for post-traumatic stress disorder in the United States. Psychological Medicine, 41, 71–83.10.1017/S0033291710000401CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, J., Teesson, M., Darke, S., Lynskey, M., Ali, R., Ritter, A., & Cooke, R. (2005). The characteristics of heroin users entering treatment: Findings from the Australian Treatment Outcome Study (ATOS). Drug and Alcohol Review, 24, 411–418.10.1080/09595230500286039CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sagud, M., Jaksic, N., Vuksan-Cusa, B., Loncar, M., Loncar, I., Peles, A. M., … Jakovljevic, M. (2017). Cardiovascular disease risk factors in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): A narrative review. Psychiatria Danubina, 29, 421–430.10.24869/psyd.2017.421CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sareen, J., Cox, B. J., Stein, M. B., Afifi, T. O., Fleet, C., & Asmundson, G. J. (2007). Physical and mental comorbidity, disability, and suicidal behavior associated with posttraumatic stress disorder in a large community sample. Psychosomatic Medicine, 69, 242–248.10.1097/PSY.0b013e31803146d8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sareen, J., Houlahan, T., Cox, B. J., & Asmundson, G. J. (2005). Anxiety disorders associated with suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in the National Comorbidity Survey. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 193, 450–454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saxe, G., Stoddard, F., Courtney, D., Cunningham, K., Chawla, N., Sheridan, R., … King, L. (2001). Relationship between acute morphine and the course of PTSD in children with burns. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 915–921.10.1097/00004583-200108000-00013CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schiff, P. L. Jr (2002). Opium and its alkaloids. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 66, 186–194.Google Scholar
Schoner, J., Heinz, A., Endres, M., Gertz, K., & Kronenberg, G. (2017). Post-traumatic stress disorder and beyond: An overview of rodent stress models. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, 21, 2248–2256.10.1111/jcmm.13161CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seal, K. H., Maguen, S., Bertenthal, D., Batki, S. L., Striebel, J., Stein, M. B., … Neylan, T. C. (2016). Observational evidence for buprenorphine's impact on posttraumatic stress symptoms in veterans with chronic pain and opioid use disorder. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 77, 1182–1188.10.4088/JCP.15m09893CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seal, K. H., Shi, Y., Cohen, G., Cohen, B. E., Maguen, S., Krebs, E. E., & Neylan, T. C. (2012). Association of mental health disorders with prescription opioids and high-risk opioid use in US veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan. JAMA, 307, 940–947.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharma, T., Guski, L. S., Freund, N., & Gotzsche, P. C. (2016). Suicidality and aggression during antidepressant treatment: Systematic review and meta-analyses based on clinical study reports. BMJ, 352, i65.10.1136/bmj.i65CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shiner, B., Leonard Westgate, C., Bernardy, N. C., Schnurr, P. P., & Watts, B. V. (2017). Trends in opioid use disorder diagnoses and medication treatment among veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Dual Diagnosis, 13, 201–212.10.1080/15504263.2017.1325033CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shippenberg, T. S., & Elmer, G. I. (1998). The neurobiology of opiate reinforcement. Critical Reviews in Neurobiology, 12, 267–303.10.1615/CritRevNeurobiol.v12.i4.10CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sial, O. K., Warren, B. L., Alcantara, L. F., Parise, E. M., & Bolanos-Guzman, C. A. (2016). Vicarious social defeat stress: Bridging the gap between physical and emotional stress. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 258, 94–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silverman, E. (2017). US Drug regulators should consider adding adults to SSRI suicide warning, says campaigner. BMJ, 357, j2050.10.1136/bmj.j2050CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, K. L., Cunningham, J. I., Eyerman, D. J., Dean, R. L. III, Deaver, D. R., & Sanchez, C. (2019). Opioid system modulators buprenorphine and samidorphan alter behavior and extracellular neurotransmitter concentrations in the Wistar Kyoto rat. Neuropharmacology 146, 316–326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, J. S., Lefkowitz, R. J., & Rajagopal, S. (2018). Biased signalling: From simple switches to allosteric microprocessors. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery, 17, 243–260.10.1038/nrd.2017.229CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Souery, D., Amsterdam, J., de Montigny, C., Lecrubier, Y., Montgomery, S., Lipp, O., … Mendlewicz, J. (1999). Treatment resistant depression: Methodological overview and operational criteria. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 9, 83–91.10.1016/S0924-977X(98)00004-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spinhoven, P., Penninx, B. W., van Hemert, A. M., de Rooij, M., & Elzinga, B. M. (2014). Comorbidity of PTSD in anxiety and depressive disorders: Prevalence and shared risk factors. Child Abuse and Neglect, 38, 1320–1330.10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.01.017CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stanczyk, M. A., & Kandasamy, R. (2018). Biased agonism: The quest for the analgesic holy grail. Pain Reports, 3, e650.10.1097/PR9.0000000000000650CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stein, M. B., Walker, J. R., Hazen, A. L., & Forde, D. R. (1997). Full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder: Findings from a community survey. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1114–1119.Google ScholarPubMed
Striebel, J. M., & Kalapatapu, R. K. (2014). The anti-suicidal potential of buprenorphine: A case report. The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 47, 169–174.10.2190/PM.47.2.gCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swartzman, S., Booth, J. N., Munro, A., & Sani, F. (2017). Posttraumatic stress disorder after cancer diagnosis in adults: A meta-analysis. Depression and Anxiety, 34, 327–339.10.1002/da.22542CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thase, M., Stanford, A. D., Memisoglu, A., Martin, W., Claxton, A., Bodnik, J. A., … Pathak, S. (2019). 50 Adjunctive buprenorphine/samidorphan combination in patients with major depressive disorder: Phase 3 long-term extension study results. CNS Spectrums, 24, 203–204.10.1017/S1092852919000427CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thase, M. E., Wright, J. H., Eells, T. D., Barrett, M. S., Wisniewski, S. R., Balasubramani, G. K., … Brown, G. K. (2018). Improving the efficiency of psychotherapy for depression: Computer-assisted versus standard CBT. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 175, 242–250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trevino, K., McClintock, S. M., McDonald Fischer, N., Vora, A., & Husain, M. M. (2014). Defining treatment-resistant depression: A comprehensive review of the literature. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 26, 222–232.Google ScholarPubMed
Uosukainen, H., Kauhanen, J., Voutilainen, S., Fohr, J., Paasolainen, M., Tiihonen, J., … Bell, J. S. (2013). Twelve-year trend in treatment seeking for buprenorphine abuse in Finland. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 127, 207–214.10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.07.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Urban, J. D., Clarke, W. P., von Zastrow, M., Nichols, D. E., Kobilka, B., Weinstein, H., … Mailman, R. B. (2007). Functional selectivity and classical concepts of quantitative pharmacology. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 320, 1–13.10.1124/jpet.106.104463CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Valentino, R. J., & Volkow, N. D. (2018). Untangling the complexity of opioid receptor function. Neuropsychopharmacology, 43, 2514–2520.10.1038/s41386-018-0225-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Bronswijk, S., Moopen, N., Beijers, L., Ruhe, H. G., & Peeters, F. (2019). Effectiveness of psychotherapy for treatment-resistant depression: A meta-analysis and meta-regression. Psychological Medicine, 49, 366–379.10.1017/S003329171800199XCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van't Veer, A., Yano, J. M., Carroll, F. I., Cohen, B. M., & Carlezon, W. A. Jr. (2012). Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)-induced disruption of attention in rats is blocked by the kappa-opioid receptor antagonist JDTic. Neuropsychopharmacology 37, 2809–2816.10.1038/npp.2012.151CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Volkow, N. D., McLellan, T. A., Cotto, J. H., Karithanom, M., & Weiss, S. R. (2011). Characteristics of opioid prescriptions in 2009. JAMA, 305, 1299–1301.10.1001/jama.2011.401CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waldhoer, M., Bartlett, S. E., & Whistler, J. L. (2004). Opioid receptors. Annual Review of Biochemistry, 73, 953–990.10.1146/annurev.biochem.73.011303.073940CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walsh, S. L., Preston, K. L., Bigelow, G. E., & Stitzer, M. L. (1995). Acute administration of buprenorphine in humans: Partial agonist and blockade effects. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 274, 361–372.Google ScholarPubMed
Wells, A. M., Ridener, E., Bourbonais, C. A., Kim, W., Pantazopoulos, H., Carroll, F. I., … Carlezon, W. A. Jr. (2017). Effects of chronic social defeat stress on sleep and circadian rhythms are mitigated by kappa-opioid receptor antagonism. The Journal of Neuroscience 37, 7656–7668.10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0885-17.2017CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiles, N., Thomas, L., Abel, A., Barnes, M., Carroll, F., Ridgway, N., … Lewis, G. (2014a). Clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapy as an adjunct to pharmacotherapy for treatment-resistant depression in primary care: The CoBalT randomised controlled trial. Health Technology Assessment, 18, 1–167, vii-viii.10.3310/hta18310CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiles, N., Thomas, L., Abel, A., Barnes, M., Carroll, F., Ridgway, N., … Lewis, G. (2014b). Chapter 8: The prevalence of treatment-resistant depression in primary care. Health Technology Assessment, No. 18.31., Southampton (UK) NIHR Journals Library.10.3310/hta18310CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, A. V., Laman-Maharg, A., Armstrong, C. V., Ramos-Maciel, S., Minie, V. A., & Trainor, B. C. (2018). Acute inhibition of kappa opioid receptors before stress blocks depression-like behaviors in California mice. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 86, 166–174.10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.06.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization (2018). Depression. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/newsroom/fact-sheets/detail/depression. Accessed 7 May 2019.Google Scholar
Wu, C. C., Hung, C. J., Lin, S. Y., Wang, Y. Y., Chang, C. Y., Chen, W. Y., … Chen, C. J. (2017). Treadmill exercise alleviated prenatal buprenorphine exposure-induced depression in rats. Neurochemistry International, 110, 91–100.10.1016/j.neuint.2017.09.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wu, C. C., Hung, C. J., Shen, C. H., Chen, W. Y., Chang, C. Y., Pan, H. C., … Chen, C. J. (2014). Prenatal buprenorphine exposure decreases neurogenesis in rats. Toxicology Letters, 225, 92–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yokell, M. A., Zaller, N. D., Green, T. C., & Rich, J. D. (2011). Buprenorphine and buprenorphine/naloxone diversion, misuse, and illicit use: An international review. Current Drug Abuse Reviews, 4, 28–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yovell, Y., Bar, G., Mashiah, M., Baruch, Y., Briskman, I., Asherov, J., … Panksepp, J. (2016). Ultra-low-dose buprenorphine as a time-limited treatment for severe suicidal ideation: A randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 173, 491–498.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zajecka, J. M., Stanford, A. D., Memisoglu, A., Martin, W. F., & Pathak, S. (2019). Buprenorphine/samidorphan combination for the adjunctive treatment of major depressive disorder: Results of a phase III clinical trial (FORWARD-3). Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 15, 795–808.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, H., Shi, Y. G., Woods, J. H., Watson, S. J., & Ko, M. C. (2007). Central kappa-opioid receptor-mediated antidepressant-like effects of nor-binaltorphimine: Behavioral and BDNF mRNA expression studies. European Journal of Pharmacology, 570, 89–96.10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.05.045CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, H., Torregrossa, M. M., Jutkiewicz, E. M., Shi, Y. G., Rice, K. C., Woods, J. H., … Ko, M. C. (2006). Endogenous opioids upregulate brain-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA through delta- and micro-opioid receptors independent of antidepressant-like effects. European Journal of Neuroscience, 23, 984–994.10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.04621.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhou, X., Keitner, G. I., Qin, B., Ravindran, A. V., Bauer, M., Del Giovane, C., … Xie, P. (2015). Atypical antipsychotic augmentation for treatment-resistant depression: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 18, pyv060.10.1093/ijnp/pyv060CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed