Hostname: page-component-54dcc4c588-2bdfx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-10-10T04:10:37.524Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Practical Considerations for Medical Applications usingBiological Grafts and their Derivatives

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 March 2012

Shayanti Mukherjee ,
Venugopal Jayarama Reddy ,
Rajeswari Ravichandran ,
Santosh Mathapati ,
Soma Guhathakurta ,
Michael Raghunath  and
Seeram Ramakrishna
Shayanti Mukherjee*
Affiliation:
Division of Bioengineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Initiative, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Venugopal Jayarama Reddy*
Affiliation:
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Initiative, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Rajeswari Ravichandran
Affiliation:
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Initiative, National University of Singapore, Singapore Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Santosh Mathapati
Affiliation:
Frontier Lifeline & Dr. K.M. Cherian Heart Foundation, Chennai, India Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai, India
Soma Guhathakurta
Affiliation:
Frontier Lifeline & Dr. K.M. Cherian Heart Foundation, Chennai, India
Michael Raghunath
Affiliation:
Division of Bioengineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai, India
Seeram Ramakrishna
Affiliation:
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Initiative, National University of Singapore, Singapore Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
*
*Corresponding Author Venugopal Jayarama Reddy/ ShayantiMukherjee Phone : 65 – 6516 4272 Fax: 65 – 6773 0339 E-mail : nnijrv@nus.edu.sg / shayanti.mukherjee@nus.edu.sg
*Corresponding Author Venugopal Jayarama Reddy/ ShayantiMukherjee Phone : 65 – 6516 4272 Fax: 65 – 6773 0339 E-mail : nnijrv@nus.edu.sg / shayanti.mukherjee@nus.edu.sg
Get access

Abstract

The art and science of using biological tissue grafts from animal and humansources for various ailments is nascent. Various research groups around theworld are actively investigating the potential prostheses of biologicalorigin. Biological tissue grafts are rendered acellular through variousmethods of processing and fabrication before they are used for the specificpurpose. The remainder is a scaffold that offers framework for host cellularrepopulation and revascularization. Different methods of fixation have beenexplored over several decades to render the biological grafts suitable foruse with or without extraction of cells. Therefore, methods such asglutaraldehyde and polyepoxide crosslinking treatments and dye-mediatedphotooxidation have been developed to stabilize and deantigenize the tissuewhile attempting to maintain its natural mechanical properties. Also,residual cellular components in a bioprosthetic material have beenassociated with undesired effects, such as calcification and immunologicalrecognition, and thus have been the motivation for various decellularizationprocesses. The effects of these stabilization and decellularizationtreatments on mechanical, biological and chemical properties of treatedtissues have been investigated, specifically with regard to calcification,immunogenicity, and cytotoxicity concerns. Naturally derived biologicalscaffolds offer many mechanical, chemical and biological advantages oversynthetic materials, and thus hold tremendous potential for use in tissueengineering therapies. Therefore the rationale of using biological grafts inusable forms is gaining importance in order to avoid unwanted chronicinflammatory reactions. This review article discusses the need for suchbioprosthetics and the potential role for natural tissues in variousapplications.

Keywords

biomaterialbiologicaltissue

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
MRS Online Proceedings Library (OPL) , Volume 1418: Symposium LL/MM – Gels and Biomedical Materials , 2012 , mrsf11-1418-mm10-18
Copyright
Copyright © Materials Research Society 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

1. Hiles, M., Lantz, G.C., Stice, S., Gen. Surg. News. 22 (2010)Google Scholar
2. Cundiff, G.W., Varner, E., Visco, A.G., Zyczynski, H. M., Nager, C. W., Norton, P A., Schaffer, J., Brown, M.B., Brubaker, L., American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 199, 688.e1(2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
3. Murphy, M., Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America, 36, 615(2009)Google Scholar
4. Paajanen, H., Scheinin, T., Vironen, J. The American Journal of Surgery, 199, 746 (2010)Google Scholar
5. Asfaw, T. S., Northington, G. Seminars in Colon and Rectal Surgery, 20, 112 (2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
6. Mirsadraee, S., Wilcox, H.E., Korossis, S.A., Kearney, J.N., Watterson, K.G. and Fisher, J. et al. ., Tissue. Eng. 12, 763 (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7. Hsu, P. W., Salgado, C. J., Kent, K., Finnegan, M., Pello, M., Simons, R., Atabek, U., Kann, B. Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery, 62, 1484 (2009)Google Scholar
8. Adedeii, O.A., Bailey, C.A., Varm, J.S., British Journal of Plastic Surgery, 55, 85 (2002)Google Scholar
9. Monteros, A.E., Torre, J.I., Ahumada, L.A., Person, D.W., Resenberg, L.Z., Vásconez, L. O. The American Journal of Surgery, 191, 173 (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
10. Lin, H.J., Spoerke, N., Deveney, C., Martindale, R., The American Journal of Surgery, 195, 599 (2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
11. Reichenbacher, F.W. AORN, 21, 652 (1975)Google Scholar
12. Yim, H., Cho, Y. S., Seo, C. H., Lee, B. C., Ko, J. H., Kim, D., Hur, J., Chun, W., Kim, J. H. Burns, 36, 322 (2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13. Kocabey, Y., Nyland, J., Nawab, A., Caborn, D., The Journal of Foot and Ankle Surgery, 45, 42 (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
14. Fanelli, G. C., Edson, C. J., Arthroscopy: The Journal of Arthroscopic & Related Surgery, 20, 339 (2004)Google Scholar
15. Birch, C., Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 19, 979 (2005)Google Scholar
16. Mykén, P. S.U., Caidahl, K., Larsson, P., Larsson, S., Wallentin, I., Berggren, H. E. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery, 60, S447, (1995)Google Scholar
17. Engelsman, A.F., van der Mei, H. C., Ploeg, R. J., Busscher, H. J., Biomaterials, 28, 2314 (2007)Google Scholar
18. Fradet, G. J., Jamieson, W.R. E., Abel, J. G., Lichtenstein, S. V., Miyagishima, R. T., Ling, H., Frank, G., Tyers, O., The Annals of Thoracic Surgery, 60, S453 (1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
19. Wu, M.P., Taiwanese Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 47, 151 (2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
20. Bowers, J.H, Cater, C.W.. I Microsc Sot. 8, 193(1966)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
21. Timpl, R., Enzymol, 82, 472 (1982)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
22. Miller, E J, “Piez, K A, Reddi, A H, Eds., 41, New York, (1984)Google Scholar
23. Carpentier, A., Lemaigre, G., Robert, L., Carpentier, S., Dubost, C.. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 58,467 (1969)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
24. Golomb, G., Schoen, F.J., Smith, M.S., Linden, J., Dixon, M., Levy, R.J., Am. J. Pathol., 30, 122 (1987)Google Scholar
25. Yannas, I.V., Biomaterial science, San Diego:Academic Press, 1996. p. 84-94.Google Scholar
26. Klein, M., Deforest, A., Chem. Spec. Manuf. Proc., 49, 116 (1963)Google Scholar
27. Huang Lee, L. L. H., Cheung, D. T. and Nimni, M. E., J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 124, 1185 (1990)Google Scholar
28. Schoen, F. J, Hobson, C.E, Hum. Pathol.,16, 549 (1985)Google Scholar
29. Nimni, M.E., J. Biol. Chem. 243, 1457 (1968)Google Scholar
30. Strawich, E., Hancock, W. D. and Nimni, M. E., Biomat. Med. Dev. Artif. Organs. 3, 309 (1975)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
31. Schoen, F. J. and Levy, R. J., Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg. 6, S91 (1992)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
32. Milano, A., Bortolotti, U., Talenti, E., Am J Cardiol 53, 1066 (1984)Google Scholar
33. O’Brien, T.K., Gabbay, S., Parkes, A.C, Knight, R.A, Zalesky, P.J, Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 30, 440 (1984)Google Scholar
34. Dahm, M., Lyman, W.D., Schwell, A.B., Factor, S.M., Frater, R.W.. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 99, 1082 (1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
35. Xi, T, Liu, F, Xi, B. E!ect of pretreatment with epoxy compounds on the mechanical properties of bovine pericardial bioprosthetic materials. J Biomater Appl 1992;7:61}75.Google Scholar
36. Sung, H.W., Shen, S.H., , Tu, R. et al. . ASAIO J 39, M532 (1993)Google Scholar
37. Tu, R, Shen, S.H., Lin, D. et al. . J Biomed Mater Res 28, 677 (1994)Google Scholar
38. Uematsu, M., Okada, M.. Artif Organs 22, 909 (1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
39. Ichikawa, Y, Noishiki, Y., Soma, T., et al. ASAIO J 40, M714 (1994)Google Scholar
40. Moore, M. A, Phillips, R. E. Jr, McIlroy, B. K, Walley, V. M, Hendry, P. J, The Annals of Thoracic Surgery, 66, S245 (1998)Google Scholar
41. Salzmann, L.D., Kleinert, L.B., Berman, S.S., Williams, S. K., Cardiovascular Pathology, 8, 63 (1999)Google Scholar
42. Azorin, J. F., Bertin, F., Martinod, E., Laskar, M., European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery, 29, 261(2006)Google Scholar
43. Baker, C.L., Mavroudis, C., Gerber, M.E., Holinger, L. D., European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery, 19, 777 (2001)Google Scholar
44. The Airway Reconstruction Team Journal of Pediatric Surgery, 40, 774 (2005) CrossRefGoogle Scholar
45. Elliott, M., Haw, M.P., Jacobs, J.P., Bailey, C.M., Evans, J.N.G., Herberhold, C. European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery, 10, 707(1996)Google Scholar
46. Lobe, T. E., Gore, D. C., Linares, H., Tencer, A., Journal of Pediatric Surgery, 26, 1104 (1991)Google Scholar
47. Jacobs, J. P., Elliott, M.J., Haw, M. P., Bailey, C.M, Herberhold, C., The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, 112, 1549 (1996)Google Scholar
48. Gebauer, P.W., J Thorac Surg ,20, 628 (1950)Google Scholar
49. Abbott, O.A., J Thorac Surg 29,217 (1955)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
50. Najm, H. K., Caldarone, C. A., Smallhorn, J., Coles, J. G., The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, 115, 468 (1998)10.1016/S0022-5223(98)70294-6Google Scholar
51. Takamizawa, S., Nishijima, E., Tsugawa, C., Muraji, T., Satoh, S., Tatekawa, Y., Kimura, K., Journal of Pediatric Surgery, 40, 781 (2005)Google Scholar
52. Mathisen, D. J., Current Problems in Surgery, 35 453 (1998)Google Scholar
53. Simon, P., Kasimir, M. T., Seebacher, G., Weigel, G., Ullrich, R., Salzer-Muhar, U., Rieder, E., Wolner, E. European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery, 23, 1002 (2003)Google Scholar
54. Mathapati, Santosh, Verma, Rama Shanker, Mammen Cherian, Kotturathu, and Guhathakurta, Soma, EJCTS/2010/256719 Institutional report, Interact CardioVasc Thorac Surg; 12, 360(2011)Google Scholar
55. Brown, J. W., Ruzmetov, M., Eltayeb, O., Rodefeld, M. D., Turrentine, M. W., The Annals of Thoracic Surgery, 91, 416 (2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
56. Brown, W., Ruzmetov, M., Eltayeb, O., Rodefeld, M. D., Turrentine, M. W., J Heart Valve Dis 15, 253 (2006)Google Scholar
57. Rüffer, A., Purbojo, A., Cicha, I., Glöckler, M., Potapov, S., Dittrich, S., Cesnjevar, R. A., European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery, 38, 78 (2010)Google Scholar
58. Ross, D.N. and Somerville, J., Lancet 2, 1446 (1966)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
59. Meyns, B., Jashari, R., Gewillig, M., Mertens, L., Komárek, A., Lesaffre, E., Budts, W. and Daenen, W., Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 28, 211 (2005)Google Scholar
60. Corno, A.F., Hurni, M., Griffin, H., Galal, O.M., Payot, M., Sekarski, N., Tozzi, P. and von Segesser, L.K., J Heart Valve Dis 11, 242 (2002)Google Scholar
61. Breymann, T., Thies, W.R., Boethig, D., Goerg, R., Blanz, U. and Koerfer, R., Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 21, 703 (2002)Google Scholar
62. Boudjemline, Y., Bonnet, D., Agnoletti, G. and Vouhé, P., Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 23, 122 (2003)Google Scholar
63. Meyns, B., Van Garsse, L., Boshoff, D., Eyskens, B., Mertens, L., Gewillig, M., Fieuws, S., Verbeken, E. and Daenen, W., J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 128, 834 (2004)Google Scholar
64. Breymann, T., Boethig, D., Goerg, R. and Thies, W.R., J Card Surg 19, 426 (2004)Google Scholar
65. Ramayyan, A.S., Guhathakurta, S., Cherian, K. M., Pezzella, A. T., European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery, 35, 196 (2009)Google Scholar
66. Schoenhoff, F. S., Loup, O., Gahl, B., Banz, Y., Pavlovic, M., Pfammatter, J.P., Carrel, T. P., Kadner, A., The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, 141, 654 (2011)Google Scholar
67. Urso, S., Rega, F., Meuris, B., Gewillig, M., Eyskens, B., Daenen, W., Heying, R., Meyns, B. European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery, In Press (2011)Google Scholar
68. Dittrich, S., Alexi-Meskishvili, V.V., Yankah, A. C., Dähnert, I., Meyer, R., Hetzer, R., Lange, P. E., The Annals of Thoracic Surgery, 70, 717 (2000)Google Scholar
69. Kim, W.H., Min, S. K., Choi, C. H., Lee, J.R., Kim, Y. J., Bae, E., Noh, C. I., The Annals of Thoracic Surgery, 84, 2047 (2007)Google Scholar
70. Cicha, I., Rüffer, A., Cesnjevar, R., Glöckler, M., Agaimy, A., Daniel, W. G., Garlichs, C. D., Dittrich, S., Cardiovascular Pathology, In Press (2010)Google Scholar
71. Lee, Y. H., Chung, M. S., Gong, H. S., Chung, J. Y., Park, J. H., Baek, G. H., The Journal of Hand Surgery, 33, 83 (2008)Google Scholar
72. ík, V. M. Injury, 33, 627 (2002)Google Scholar
73. Johnson, E.O. and Soucacos, P.N., Injury 39 ,30 (2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
74. Ichihara, S., Inada, Y. and Nakamura, T., Injury 39, 39 (2008)Google Scholar
75. Young, V.L., Wray, R.C. and Weeks, P.M., Ann Plast Surg 5 (1980)Google Scholar
76. Trumble, T.E. and McCallister, W.V., Hand Clin 16, 37 (2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
77. Mackay, M.M. and Midha, R., Neurologia Medico-Chirurgica 40, 187 (2000)Google Scholar
78. Mackinnon, S.E., Doolabh, V.B., Novak, C.B. and Trulock, E.P., Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 107, 1419 (2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
79. Barbour, S. and King, W., American Journal of Sports Medicine 31, 791 (2003)Google Scholar
80. Smith, R.M., Wiedl, C., Chubb, P. and Greene, C.H., Journal of Investigative Surgery 17, 339 (2004)Google Scholar
81. Hiles, M. and Hodde, J., International Urogynecology Journal and Pelvic Floor Dysfunction 17 (Suppl 1), S39 (2006)Google Scholar
82. Luo, J.C., Chen, W., Chen, X.H., Qin, T.W., Huang, Y.C., Xie, H.Q., Li, X.Q., Qian, Z.Y., Yang, Z.M. Biomaterials, 32, 706 (2011)Google Scholar
83. Hadlock, T.A., Sundback, C.A., Hunter, D.A., Vacanti, J.P. and Cheney, M.L., Microsurgery 21, 96 (2001)Google Scholar
84. Cook, W.A., Hiles, M.C, Kozma, T.G., Patel, U.H.. Cook Biotech, Inc. (West Lafayette, IN), MED Institute, Inc. (West Lafayette, IN) 2001.Google Scholar
85. Cobb, M.A., Badylak, S.F., Isom, G., Sharma, A.. US Patent no. 6,241,981. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue Research Foundation; 1999.Google Scholar
86. Bucknall, T.E., Cox, P.J. and Ellis, H., Br Med J 284, 931 (1982)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
87. Hesselink, V.J., Luijendijk, R.W. and de Wilt, J.H. et al. ., Surg Gynecol Obstet 176, 228 (1993)Google Scholar
88. Leber, G.E., Garb, J.L. and Alexander, A.I. et al. ., Arch Surg 133, 378 (1998)Google Scholar
89. Allman, A.J., McPherson, T.B., Merrill, L.C., Badylak, S.F., Metzger, D.W.. Tissue Eng. 8, 53 (2002)Google Scholar
90. Gonzalez, J. J. and Glass, J. L., Hernia 8, 86 DOI: 10.1007/s10029-004-0208-7 Google Scholar
91. Ansaloni, L., Catena, F., Coccolini, F., Gazzotti, F., D’Alessandro, L., Pinna, A. D., The American Journal of Surgery, 198, 303 (2009)Google Scholar
92. Jancelewicz, T., Vu, L.T., Keller, R. L., Bratton, B., Lee, H., Farmer, D., Harrison, M., Miniati, D., Mackenzie, T., Hirose, S., Nobuhara, K., Journal of Pediatric Surgery, 45, 155 (2010)Google Scholar
93. Grethel, E. J., Cortes, R. A., Wagner, A. J., Clifton, M. S., Lee, H., Farmer, D.L., Harrison, M.R., Keller, R. L., Nobuhara, K. K., Journal of Pediatric Surgery, 41, 29 (2006)Google Scholar
94. Oelschlager, B. K., Barreca, M., Chang, L., Pellegrini, C. A., The American Journal of Surgery, 186, 4 (2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
95. Parker, D. M., Armstrong, P. J., Frizzi, J. D., North, J. H. Jr, Current Surgery, 63, 255 (2006)Google Scholar
96. Bellows, C.F, Alder, A., Helton, W.S., Expert Rev Med Devices. 3, 657 (2006)Google Scholar
97. Gilbert, T.W., Sellaro, T.L. and Badylak, S.F., Biomaterials 27, 3675 (2006)Google Scholar
98. Badylak, S.F., Freytes, D.O. and Gilbert, T.W., Acta Biomater 5, 1 (2009)Google Scholar
99. Stephens, L. E. et al. ., Genes Dev. 9, 1883 (1995)Google Scholar
100. Singelyn, J.M., DeQuach, J.A., Seif-Naraghi, S. B., Littlefield, R. B., Schup-Magoffin, P.J., Christman, K. L., Biomaterials, 30, 5409 (2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
101. Hashimoto, Y., Funamoto, S., Sasaki, S., Biomaterials 31, 3941 (2010)Google Scholar
102. Ott, H.C., Matthiesen, T.S., Goh, S-K, Nat Med 14, 213 (2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
103. Uygun, B.E., oto-Gutierrez, A.S, Yagi, H., Nat Med 16, 814 (2010)Google Scholar
104. Ott, H.C., Clippinger, B., Conrad, C., Nat Med 16, 927 (2010)Google Scholar
105. Moscona, A.A., Sci. Am. 200, 132 (1959)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
106. Vandenburgh, H.H. et al. ., , In Vitro Cell Dev. Biol. 24,166 (1988)Google Scholar
107. Terracio, L. et al. ., , In Vitro Cell Dev. Biol. 24, 53 (1988)Google Scholar
108. Radisic, M. et al. ., , Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 18129 (2004)Google Scholar
109. Douglas, W.H. et al. ., , In Vitro 12, 373 (1976)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
110. Geppert, E.F. et al. ., , Exp. Cell Res. 128, 363 (1980)Google Scholar
111. Lwebuga-Mukasa, J.S. et al. ., , Exp. Cell Res. 162, 423 (1986)Google Scholar
112. White, S.A. et al. ., , Cell Transplant. 9, 19 (2000)Google Scholar
113. Lim, F. and Sun, A.M.,, Science 210, 908 (1980)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
114. Ott, H.C. et al. ., , Nat. Med. 14, 213 (2008)Google Scholar
115. Uygun, B.E. et al. ., , Nat. Med. 16, 814 (2010)Google Scholar
116. Petersen, T.H. et al. ., , Science 329, 538 (2010)Google Scholar
117. Macchiarini, P. et al. ., , Lancet 372, 2023 (2008)Google Scholar
118. Claudius, C. et al. ., J. Am. Coll. Surg. 211 (2010)Google Scholar
119. Hoshiba, T., Lu, H., Kawazoe, N., Chen, G., Expert Opin Biol Ther. 10, 1717 (2010)Google Scholar
120. Murry, C.E. and Pu, W.T., , N. Engl. J. Med. 364, 177 (2011)Google Scholar
121. Place, E.S, Evans, N.D, Stevens, M.M. Nature Materials. 8, 457 (2009)Google Scholar
122. Thomas Vangsness, C. Jr., Wagner, Phillip P., Moore, Tillman M., Roberts, Michael R. Arthroscopy: The Journal of Arthroscopic & Related Surgery, Volume 22, Issue 12, December 2006, Pages 1351-1358 Google Scholar
123. Code of federal Regulations, Title 21, Food and Drugs [parts 800-1299]. Federal Register: Washinton DC, Government Printing Office Google Scholar
124. Vangsness, C. T. Jr., Dellamaggiora, R. D. Clinics in Sports Medicine, 28, 183 (2009)Google Scholar
125. Witten, Celia, Batra, Ashok, Durfor, Charles N., Hilbert, Stephen L., Kaplan, David S., Fink, Donald, Lavoie, Deborah, Maher, Ellen, McFarland, Richard Principles of Regenerative Medicine, 1366 (2008)Google Scholar
126. Kehoe, S., Zhang, X.F., Boyd, D. Injury, In Press, 2011 Google Scholar
127. Whittlesey, K. J., Lee, M. H., Dang, J. M., Colehour, M., Arcidiacono, J., Lazarus, E., Kaplan, D. S., Fink, D., Durfor, C. N., Batra, A., Hilbert, S. L., Grayeski, D. L., McFarland, R., Witten, C., Principles of Regenerative Medicine (Second edition), 2011, Pages 1145–1168 Google Scholar