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Biblical love song as Chinese literature: the Song of Songs in the Delegates’ Version
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 26 September 2025
Abstract
The Song of Songs—a biblical celebration of love and desire—holds a unique place in literary history, revered not only for its religious significance, but also for its poetic beauty. Early Chinese translations of this biblical book struggled to resonate with local audiences until the release of the Delegates’ Version, which is acclaimed as the first Chinese Bible that can truly be regarded as a work of Chinese literature. The Song of Songs in the Delegates’ Version, titled Yage 雅歌 (The Refined Song), undergoes a noticeable acculturation in which its imagery and themes are intricately woven into the fabric of Chinese literary tradition. This article explores how this biblical love song has been recontextualised to resonate with Chinese cultural and literary sensibilities. By examining the portrayal of lovers, the nature of love, and the poetic resonance established through the integration of verses from the Shijing in the Yage, it highlights the intricate interplay between biblical text and Chinese literature. Ultimately, this study reveals that, while the Bible shapes the life of its community, it is also shaped by the cultural and linguistic contexts in which it is translated.
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- © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Royal Asiatic Society.
References
1 T. H. Robinson (ed.), A Companion to the Song of Songs in the History of Spirituality (Leiden and Boston, 2021), p. 1.
2 Zhou Zuoren 周作人 (1885–1967), a leading figure in early twentieth-century Chinese literature, championed the Mandarin Chinese Union Version (CUV) as a significant model for modern Chinese writing. In his 1920 lecture ‘Shengshu yu Zhongguo wenxue’ [聖書與中國文學 The Bible and Chinese Literature], he advocated for the creation of new Chinese love poetry by drawing inspirations from the Song of Songs. See Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Zhou Zuoren Sanwen Quanji 周作人散文全集 [Complete Essays of Zhou Zuoren] (Guilin, 2009), p. 308.
3 M. Gálik, ‘The Song of Songs and a new vision of love in modern Chinese literature: an essay in Hebrew-Chinese interliterary process’, Rivista Degli Studi Orientali 4 (2007), pp. 47–59.
4 Li Panpan 厲盼盼, ‘Yage dui Zhongguo xiandai shige de yingxiang’ 《雅歌》對中國現代詩歌的影響 [The influence of the Song of Songs on modern Chinese poetry], Zhongguo wenxue yanjiu [中國文學研究 Chinese Literature Studies] 3 (2014), pp. 116–120.
5 Ma Yuelan 馬月蘭, ‘Yage Chongyi de wenxue dongyin’ 《雅歌》重譯的文學動因 [The literary motivation behind the retranslations of the Song of Songs], Shengjing wenxue yanjiu [聖文學研究 Biblical Literature Studies] 10 (2015), pp. 102–121.
6 Judging from extant sources, the Song of Songs eluded the attention of earlier Chinese Bible translation endeavours primarily undertaken by Roman Catholic missionaries. The most complete version of the Chinese Bible rendered by Louis de Poirot (1735–1813) between 1750 and 1800 left out the Song of Songs and most of the Prophets. See N. Standaert, ‘The Bible in early seventeenth-century China’, in Bible in Modern China: The Literary and Intellectual Impact, (eds.) I. Eber, Sze-kar Wan, and K. Walf (Sankt Augustin, 1999), pp. 31–54.
7 A. Wylie, ‘The Bible in China’, in Chinese Researches, (ed.) J. Thomas (Shanghai, 1897), pp. 81–109.
8 There are debates about whether the Old Testament should be referred to as the Delegates’ Version, as it was translated solely by the London Missionary Society missionaries. See J. O. Zetzsche, The Bible in China: The History of the Union Version or The Culmination of Protestant Missionary Bible Translation in China (Sankt Augustin,1999), pp. 100–101. In this article, we will use ‘Delegates’ Version’ to refer to both the New Testament translated by the delegates and the Old Testament translated by the LMS missionaries, following the convention used by most authors (see C. Tsz Ming Tong 唐子明, Qishi Yu Wenzi: Zhongwen Shengjing Fanyi de Gushi (1807-1919 啟示與文字: 中文聖經翻譯的故事 (1807-1919) [Revelation and Text: Story of the Chinese Bible (1807-1809)] (Hong Kong, 2018), p. 153.
9 A. Wylie, Memorials of Protestant Missionaries to the Chinese: Giving a List of Their Publications and Obituary Notes of the Deceased (Shanghai, 1867), p. 35.
10 P. Hanan, ‘The Bible as Chinese literature: Medhurst, Wang Tao, and the Delegates’ Version’, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 1 (2003), p. 222.
11 Zetzsche, Bible in China, p. 93.
12 J. R. Hykes, ‘Dr. John R. Hykes tells the wonderful story of the American Bible in China’, The China Press, 12 November 1911, p. 3.
13 The term ‘xiucai 秀才’ (talented scholar) referred to a person who had passed the lowest degree in the imperial examination system in China, indicating a level of education and scholarly achievement.
14 See Hanan, ‘Bible as Chinese literature’, p. 225.
15 The Chinese title ‘Yage 雅歌’ first appeared in the Delegates’ Version and has since been widely adopted in many subsequent Chinese Bibles. In this article, ‘Yage 雅歌’ will specifically refer to the version in the Delegates’ Version unless stated otherwise.
16 M. Gálik, ‘The Song of Songs (Šir Hašširim) and the Book of Songs (Shijing): an attempt in
comparative analysis’, Asian and African Studies 1 (1997), pp. 45–75.
17 Ibid, p. 55.
18 Zhang Longxi, Allegoresis: Reading Canonical Literature East and West (New York, 2005), p. 84.
19 The Chinese Bible used in this article is the ‘JiuYue Quan Shu 舊約全書’, the 1855 edition of the Old Testament (Delegate’s Version) printed by Anglo-Chinese College 香港英華書院, made available by Dr. Kenny Wang of the University of Western Sydney. Retrieved from 信望愛: 珍本聖經數位典藏查詢系統 (Faith, Hope, Love: Rare Edition Bible Collection Digital Retrieval System) https://bible.fhl.net/gbdoc/ob/index.html. Citations of the Hebrew Bible are from the Masoretic Text (MT) and the English King James Version (KJV). Though it is unclear about the exact English model texts that Medhurst and his team followed, it is highly likely that they used the KJV considering its prestigious status. The early protestants such as Marshman and Lassar had used the KJV when completing their translation of the Hebrew Bible; see C. Tsz Ming Tong, ‘The Protestant Missionaries as Bible Translators: Mission and Rivalry in China, 1807-1839’ (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of British Columbia, 2016), p. 63. And Morrison mentioned that he used the KJV as his model text with the help of other versions; see M. Broomhall, Robert Morrison: A Master-Builder (London, 1927), p. 123. For the text of the KJV in the standard spelling, I use www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/1611-Bible/.
20 The Hebrew transcription follows the SBL Academic system.
21 Origen, The Song of Songs: Commentary and Homilies, (trans.) R. P. Lawson (Westminster, 1957), p. 21.
22 Cited from the English translation by Bernhard Karlgren (1889–1978); see B. Karlgren, The Book of Odes (Stockholm, 1950), p. 83. The English translation of the Shijing referenced in this article primarily comes from Bernhard Karlgren, known for its literal approach. In instances in which Karlgren’s translation falls short, I have opted to use James Legge’s version instead.
23 A waṣf is an ancient style of Arabic poetry in which the lover praises the physical attributes of his or her partner.
24 J. C. Exum, Song of Songs: A Commentary (Louisville, 2005), p. 209.
25 ‘丈zhang’, a traditional Chinese length measurement, is equal to 3.33 metres.
26 Shishuoxinyu 世說新語 (A New Account of the Tales of the World) is a Chinese collection of anecdotes, historical accounts, and character sketches from the late Han Dynasty to the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Compiled by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 (403–444), this work offers invaluable insights into the intellectual and social milieu of that era.
27 Based on the context and parallelism, ‘tōrîm’ likely refers to ornaments worn on the cheeks of a woman, while ‘ḥărûzîm’ are beads or necklaces, but the specific nature of these ornaments remains uncertain. See M. H. Pope, Song of Songs: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (New York, 1977), p. 344; and R. E. Murphy, The Song of Songs: A Commentary on the Book of Canticles or the Song of Songs (Hermeneia and Minneapolis, 1990), p. 134.
28 Pope, Song of Songs, p. 400.
29 Murphy, Song of Songs, p. 186.
30 R. S. Hess, Song of Songs (Grand Rapids, 2005), p. 11.
31 F. Landy, Paradoxes of Paradise: Identity and Difference in the Song of Songs
(Sheffield, 2011), p. 108.
32 Exum, Song of Songs, p. 250.
33 Murphy, Song of Songs, p. 104.
34 Exum, Song of Songs, p. 249.
35 Confucius, The Analects, (trans.) D. C. Lau (Harmondsworth, 1979), p. 70.
36 Gálik, ‘Song of Songs (Šir Hašširim)', p. 66.
37 M. Nylan, The Five ‘Confucian’ Classics (New Haven, 2001), pp. 72–73.
38 Karlgren, Book of Odes, p. 83. According to Mao’s interpretation, ‘pan 盼’ in the verse ‘美目盼兮’ is interpreted as ‘bei hei fen 白黑分’, indicating a clear contrast between the whites of eyes and the pupil; see LiXueqin 李學勤 (ed.), Shisanjing Zhushu Maoshi Zhengyi 十三經注疏・毛詩正義 [Annotations and Commentaries on the Thirteen Classics: Mao’s Interpretations of the Shijing] (Beijing, 1999), p. 224. Both Karlgren’s and James Legge’s versions have adopted this interpretation. However, ‘pan 盼’ is also explained as ‘dongmu 動目’ (the glancing of eyes) in Annotations on the Analects 論語注疏 (see ibid, p. 33). Additionally, ‘pan 盼’ is described as 美目(beautiful eyes) according to Zilin 字林 (Forest of Characters)—a Chinese dictionary compiled by the Jin Dynasty lexicographer Lü Chen 呂忱 (see ibid, p. 224). All these interpretations highlight the beauty of the eyes.
39 Fang Yurun 方玉潤, Shijing Yuanshi Shang 詩經原始上 [Shijing Original I] (Beijing, 1986), p. 177.
40 Karlgren, Book of Odes, p. 31.
41 J. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 4: The She King (Hong Kong, 1960), p. 38.
42 Zhu Xi 朱熹, Shiji Chuan 詩集傳 [A Commentary on the Book of Songs] (Beijing, 2011), p. 22. Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1126–1271) was the great synthesiser of Daoxue 道學 (neo-Confucianism) whose commentary on the Shijing had been accepted as canonical until the fall of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912).
43 A. Cook, The Root of the Thing: A Study of Job and the Song of Songs (Bloomington, 1968), pp. 143–144.
44 Karlgren, Book of Odes, p. 181.
45 Ibid, p. 2.
46 Ibid, p. 57.
47 Zhu Xi 朱熹 noted that this is a song by a woman soliciting the advances of her lovers. See Zhu Xi 朱熹, Shiji Chuan, p. 68. There are various interpretations of ‘Tuoxi 蘀兮’. For instance, Mao text views the ode as a satirical commentary on the weak monarch Hu of the State of Zheng and his powerful ministers. See Li Xueqin 李學勤, Shisanjing Zhushu Maoshi Zhengyi, p. 303. Despite these differing readings, the characters chang (倡), meaning ‘to lead in singing’, and he (和), meaning ‘to join in’, suggest a sense of harmony in relationships.
48 Confucius, Analects, p. 63.
49 Li Xueqin 李學勤, Shisanjing Zhushu Maoshi Zhengyi, p. 23.
50 Zhu Xi 朱熹, Shiji Chuan, p. 2.
51 A. Waley (trans.), The Book of Songs (New York, 1960), pp. 335–337.
52 Origen, Song of Songs, p. 21.
53 Pope, Song of Songs, p. 119.
54 Xinjiuyue Shengjing Chuanzhu Qianwenli 新舊約聖經・串珠淺文理 [Easy Wenli Reference Bible] (Shanghai, 1927). Retrieved from 信望愛: 珍本聖經數位典藏查詢系統 (Faith, Hope, Love: Rare Edition Bible Collection Digital Retrieval System), https://bible.fhl.net/ob/nob.html?book=4.
55 Xinjiuyue Shengshu: guanhua 新舊約聖書 [Mandarin Reference Bible] (Shanghai, 1912), https://bible.fhl.net/ob/nob.html?book=365.
56 W. Gesenius, E. Kautzsch, and A. E. Cowley, Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar (La Vergne, 2010), p. 133i.
57 Exum, Song of Songs, p. 91; Pope, Song of Songs, p. 294.
58 Yu Yelu 餘也魯 (ed.), Zhongwen Shengjing Qidao Ben 聖經啟導本 [The Chinese Study Bible] (Hong Kong, 1996), p. 978.
59 Li Xueqin 李學勤, Shisanjing Zhushu Maoshi Zhengyi, p. 17.
60 Cheng Shude 程樹德, Lunyu Jishi 論語集釋 [Collected Explanations of the Analects] (Beijing, 1990), pp. 475–476.
61 M. V. Fox, The Song of Songs and the Ancient Egyptian Love Songs (Madison, 1985), p. 96.
62 M. Broomhall, The Bible in China (London, 1934), p. 69.
63 See Zetzsche, Bible in China, p. 162.
64 K. K. Yeo, ‘Creative transformation, the Bible, and China’, in Oxford Handbook of the Bible in China, (ed.) K. K. Yeo (New York, 2021), pp. 6–7.