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Biogenic structures produced by foraging birds in marginal marine and marginal lacustrine settings: implications for the rock record

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 September 2025

John-Paul Zonneveld Open the ORCID record for John-Paul Zonneveld [Opens in a new window] ,
Brooks Britt ,
Drew Brown ,
Hilary Corlett ,
Murray K. Gingras ,
Tom Kibblewhite ,
Tomohiro Kuwae ,
Ryusuke Kimitsuki ,
Scott Andrew Melnyk Open the ORCID record for Scott Andrew Melnyk [Opens in a new window]  and
Sarah Naone
...Show all authors
John-Paul Zonneveld*
Affiliation:
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E3, Canada
Brooks Britt
Affiliation:
Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
Drew Brown
Affiliation:
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E3, Canada
Hilary Corlett
Affiliation:
Department of Earth Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland and Labrador, St. Johns, NL, Canada
Murray K. Gingras
Affiliation:
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E3, Canada
Tom Kibblewhite
Affiliation:
Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1RJ, UK
Tomohiro Kuwae
Affiliation:
Coastal and Estuarine Environment Research Group, Port and Airport Research Institute, Nagase, Yokosuka, Japan
Ryusuke Kimitsuki
Affiliation:
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E3, Canada
Scott Andrew Melnyk
Affiliation:
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E3, Canada
Sarah Naone
Affiliation:
Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
Fiona Whitaker
Affiliation:
Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1RJ, UK
Zoe E.E. Zonneveld
Affiliation:
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E9, Canada
*
Corresponding author: John-Paul Zonneveld; Email: zonnevel@ualberta.ca
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Abstract

This contribution identifies biogenic structures created by modern birds foraging in marginal aquatic settings and provides descriptions to facilitate their identification in the rock record. Biogenic structures related to foraging can be separated into those created by bills, such as peck marks, probe marks, gape marks, dabble marks, sweep marks, and bill-stir marks. Biogenic structures created by feet include stir tracks and paddle pits. Peck marks are created during visual foraging and result in shallow, solitary or paired, random or clustered, circular to subcircular pits and grooves. Probe marks are created during tactile foraging but are similar to peck marks, differing solely in their greater depth of penetration. Gape marks are formed when birds open their bill in the sediment resulting in elongated grooves. Dabble marks are larger ovoid divots emplaced by broad-billed waterbirds in subaqueous settings. Bill stirring occurs when a bird swishes its bill in a narrow trend on the sediment surface. Sweep marks are arcuate grooves emplaced in the sediment when long-billed birds forage by sweeping their bill side-to-side across the sediment–water interface.

Birds shuffling their feet in soft sediment is termed ‘foot-stirring’ and results in overprinted, side-by-side trackways. Foot-paddling dewaters the sediment and produces various pit morphologies with massive fill. Trackways emplaced during foraging are commonly characterized by variable stride length, stutter steps, and sudden changes in direction. ‘Trample grounds’ are produced by gregarious foraging flocks of birds. It is anticipated that illustrating and describing the structures produced by these behaviors will facilitate recognition of these commonly overlooked traces.

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Memoir
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Journal of Paleontology , Volume 99 , Supplement S98 , September 2025 , pp. 1 - 51
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© The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Paleontological Society

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