Hostname: page-component-84c44f86f4-6dgjw Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-10-14T23:00:21.647Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A psychometric appraisal of positive psychology outcome measures in use with carers of people living with dementia: a systematic review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 October 2020

Richard D. Pione Open the ORCID record for Richard D. Pione [Opens in a new window] ,
Aimee Spector ,
Anna V. Cartwright Open the ORCID record for Anna V. Cartwright [Opens in a new window]  and
Charlotte R. Stoner Open the ORCID record for Charlotte R. Stoner [Opens in a new window]
Richard D. Pione*
Affiliation:
Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
Aimee Spector
Affiliation:
Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
Anna V. Cartwright
Affiliation:
Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
Charlotte R. Stoner
Affiliation:
Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
*
Correspondence should be addressed to: Richard D. Pione, Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, 1-19 Torrington Place, London, WC1E 7HB, UK. Phone: +020 7679 1897; Fax: +020 7916 1989. Email: r.pione.17@ucl.ac.uk.
Get access

Abstract

Objectives:

This review aimed (i) to identify all positive psychology measures in use with family carers and (ii) to determine their psychometric properties.

Design:

Literature searches were made in Ovid MEDLINE, PsychINFO, and Web of Science. The identified measures were then subjected to analysis via an established quality appraisal tool.

Results:

Twenty-five instruments representing the positive psychology constructs of resilience, self-efficacy, and positive aspects to caregiving were found. Two reviewers independently evaluated the measures using the quality appraisal tool. The Gain in Alzheimer Care Instrument, the Resilience Scale, and the Caregiver Efficacy Scale were found to be the highest scoring measures within their respective constructs.

Conclusions:

Although some robust instruments were identified, there were numerous examples of important psychometric properties not being evidenced in development papers. Future researchers and clinicians should administer evidence-based outcome measures with adequate psychometric properties representing positive and negative constructs to obtain a comprehensive picture of a person’s well-being.

Keywords

instrumentsupportive otherresilienceself-efficacypositive aspects to caregiving

Information

Type
Review Article
Information
International Psychogeriatrics , Volume 33 , Special Issue 4: Issue Theme: Caring for Caregivers of People with Dementia , April 2021 , pp. 385 - 404
Copyright
© International Psychogeriatric Association 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Abdollahpour, I., Nedjat, S., Noroozian, M., Salimi, Y. and Majdzadeh, R. (2017). Positive aspects of caregiving questionnaire: a validation study in caregivers of patients with dementia. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 30, 77–83. doi: 10.1177/0891988716686831.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aneshensel, C. S., Pearlin, L. I., Mullan, J. T., Zarit, S. H. and Whitlatch, C. J. (1995). Profiles in Caregiving: The Unexpected Career. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Au, A. et al. (2010). The coping with caregiving group program for Chinese caregivers of patients with Alzheimer’s disease in Hong Kong. Patient Education and Counseling, 78, 256–260. doi: 10.1016/j.pec.2009.06.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandura, A. (2006). Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales. In: Urdan, T. and Pajares, F. (Eds.), Self-Efficacy beliefs of Adolescents (pp. 307–337). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.Google Scholar
Bartone, P. T., Ursano, R. J., Wright, K. M. and Ingraham, L. H. (1989). The impact of a military air disaster on the health of assistance workers. A prospective study. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 177, 317–328. doi: 10.1097/00005053-198906000-00001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beauchamp, N., Irvine, A. B., Seeley, J. and Johnson, B. (2005). Worksite-based internet multimedia program for family caregivers of persons with dementia. The Gerontologist, 45, 793–801. doi: 10.1093/geront/45.6.793.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boots, L. M., de Vugt, M. E., Kempen, G. I. and Verhey, F. R. (2018). Effectiveness of a blended care self-management program for caregivers of people with early-stage dementia (partner in balance): randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 20, e10017. doi: 10.2196/10017.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chesney, M. A., Neilands, T. B., Chambers, D. B., Taylor, J. M. and Folkman, S. (2006). A validity and reliability study of the coping self-efficacy scale. British Journal of Health Psychology, 11, 421–437. doi: 10.1348/135910705X53155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheung, K. S. et al. (2015). Multicomponent intervention on enhancing dementia caregiver well-being and reducing behavioral problems among Hong Kong Chinese: a translational study based on REACH II. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 30, 460–469. doi: 10.1002/gps.4160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, C. A., Colantonio, A. and Vernich, L. (2002). Positive aspects of caregiving: rounding out the caregiver experience. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 17, 184–188. doi: 10.1002/gps.561.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connell, C. M. and Janevic, M. R. (2009). Effects of a telephone-based exercise intervention for dementia caregiving wives: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 28, 171–194. doi: 10.1177/0733464808326951.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connor, K. M. and Davidson, J. R. T. (2003). Development of a new resilience scale: the Connor-Davidson resilience scale (CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 18, 76–82. doi: 10.1002/da.10113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coon, D. W., Thompson, L., Steffen, A., Sorocco, K. and Gallagher-Thompson, D. (2003). Anger and depression management: psychoeducational skill training interventions for women caregivers of a relative with dementia. The Gerontologist, 43, 678–689. doi: 10.1093/geront/43.5.678.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crellin, N., Charlesworth, C. and Orrell, M. (2014). Measuring family caregiver efficacy for managing behavioral and psychological symptoms in dementia: a psychometric evaluation. International Psychogeriatrics, 26, 93–103. doi: 10.1017/S1041610213001646.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cristancho-Lacroix, V., Wrobel, J., Cantegreil-Kallen, I., Dub, T., Rouquette, A. and Rigaud, A. S. (2015). A web-based psychoeducational program for informal caregivers of patients with Alzheimer’s disease: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 17, 117. doi: 10.2196/jmir.3717.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, J. L., Mega, M., Gray, K., Rosenberg-Thompson, S., Carusi, D. A. and Gombein, J. (1994). The neuropsychiatric inventory: comprehensive assessment of psychopathology in dementia. Neurology, 44, 2308–2314. doi: 10.1212/WNL.44.12.2308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Czaja, S. J. et al. (2018). Community REACH: an implementation of an evidence-based caregiver program. The Gerontologist, 58, 130–137. doi: 10.1093/geront/gny001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Czaja, S. J., Loewenstein, D., Schulz, R., Nair, S. and Perdomo, D. (2013). A videophone psychosocial intervention for dementia caregivers. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 21, 1071–1081. doi: 10.1016/j.jagp.2013.02.019.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dam, A., Boots, L., Van Boxtel, M., Verhey, F., and De Vugt, M. (2018). A mismatch between supply and demand of social support in dementia care: a qualitative study on the perspectives of spousal caregivers and their social network members. International Psychogeriatrics, 30, 881–892. doi: 10.1017/S1041610217000898.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickinson, C., Dow, J., Gibson, G., Hayes, L., Robalino, S. and Robinson, L. (2016). Psychosocial intervention for carers of people with dementia: what components are most effective and when? A systematic review of systematic reviews. International Psychogeriatrics, 26, 1–13. doi: 10.1017/S1041610216001447.Google Scholar
Dow, J., Robinson, J., Robalino, S., Finch, T., McColl, E. and Robinson, L. (2018). How best to assess quality of life in informal carers of people with dementia: a systematic review of existing outcome measures. PLoS ONE, 13, 1–18. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193398.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ducharme, F. C. et al. (2011). “Learning to become a family caregiver” efficacy of an intervention program for caregivers following diagnosis of dementia in a relative. The Gerontologist, 51, 484–494. doi: 10.1093/geront/gnr014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Easom, L., Cotter, E. and Ramos, A. (2018). Comparison of African American and Caucasian caregiver self-efficacy. Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 44, 16–21. doi: 10.3928/00989134-20171023-01.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faba, J., Villar, F. and Giuliani, M. F. (2017). Development of a measure to evaluate gains among Spanish dementia caregivers: the gains associated with caregiving (GAC) scale. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 68, 76–83. doi: 10.1016/j.archger.2016.09.00.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Field, A. (2009). Discovering Statistics Using SPSS (3rd ed.). London: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Fortinsky, R. H. et al. (2014). Results and lessons learned from a nurse practitioner-guided dementia care intervention for primary care patients and their family caregivers. Research in Gerontological Nursing, 7, 126–137. doi: 10.3928/19404921-20140113-01.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fortinsky, R. H., Kercher, K. and Burant, C. J. (2002). Measurement and correlates of family caregiver self-efficacy for managing dementia. Aging and Mental Health, 6, 153–160. doi: 10.1080/13607860220126763.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gant, J. R., Steffen, A. M. and Lauderdale, S. A. (2007). Comparative outcomes of two distance-based interventions for male caregivers of family members with dementia. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Dementias, 22, 120–128. doi: 10.1177/1533317506298880.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garcia, A. W. and King, A. C. (1991). Predicting long-term adherence to aerobic exercise: a comparison of two models. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13, 394–410. doi: 10.1123/jsep.13.4.394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaugler, J. E., Kane, R. L. and Newcomer, R. (2007). Resilience and transitions from dementia caregiving. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 62, 38–44. doi: 10.1093/geronb/62.1.P38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glueckauf, R. L. et al. (2007). Telephone-based cognitive-behavioral intervention for distressed rural dementia caregivers. Clinical Gerontologist, 31, 21–41. doi: 10.1300/J018v31n01_03.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottlieb, B. H. and Rooney, J. A. (2003). Validation of the RIS eldercare self-efficacy scale. Canadian Journal on Aging, 22, 95–107. doi: 10.1017/S0714980800003767.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harding, A. J. E. et al. (2020). A core outcome set for nonpharmacological community-based interventions for people living with dementia at home: a systematic review of outcome measurement instruments. The Gerontologist, gnaa071. doi: 10.1093/geront/gnaa071.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harding, A. J. E. et al. (2019). What is important to people living with dementia?: the ‘long list’ of outcome items in the development of a core outcome set for use in the evaluation of non-pharmacological community-based health and social care interventions. BMC Geriatrics, 19, 94. doi: 10.1186/s12877-019-1103-5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hattink, B. et al. (2015). Web-based STAR e-learning course increases empathy and understanding in dementia caregivers: results from a randomized controlled trial in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 17, e241. doi: 10.2196/jmir.4025.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hickman, H., Clarke, C. and Wolverson, E. (2018). A qualitative study of the shared experience of humour between people living with dementia and their partners. Dementia. doi: 10.1177/1471301218805895.Google ScholarPubMed
Hou, R. J. et al. (2014). The effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction program on the mental health of family caregivers: a randomized controlled trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 83, 45–53. doi: 10.1159/000353278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kate, N., Grover, S., Kulhara, P. and Nehra, R. (2012). Scale for positive aspects of caregiving experience: development, reliability, and factor structure. East Asian Archives of Psychiatry, 22, 62–69.Google Scholar
Kaye, L. W. (1996). Assessing the efficacy of a self-help support group program for older women. Journal of Women & Aging, 7, 4. doi: 10.1300/J074v07n04_03.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koerner, S. S., Kenyon, D. B. and Shirai, Y. (2009). Caregiving for elder relatives: which caregivers experience personal benefits/gains? Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 48, 238–245. doi: 10.1016/j.archger.2008.01.015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krause, N. (1995). Negative interaction and satisfaction with social support among older adults. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 50, 59–73. doi: 10.1093/geronb/50b.2.p59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuhn, D. and Fulton, M. A. (2004). Efficacy of an educational program for relatives of persons in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 42, 109–130. doi: 10.1300/J083v42n03_07.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kwok, T., Au, A., Wong, B., Ip, I., Mak, V. and Ho, F. (2014). Effectiveness of online cognitive behavioral therapy on family caregivers of people with dementia. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 9, 631–636. doi: 10.2147/CIA.S56337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kwok, T., Wong, B., Ip, I., Chui, K., Young, D. and Ho, F. (2013). Telephone-delivered psychoeducational intervention for Hong Kong Chinese dementia caregivers: a single-blinded randomized controlled trial. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 8, 1191–1197. doi: 10.2147/CIA.S48264.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazarus, R. S. and Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. New York: Springer Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Lewis, V., Bauer, M., Winbolt, M., Chenco, C. and Hanley, F. (2015). A study of the effectiveness of MP3 players to support family carers of people living with dementia at home. International Psychogeriatrics, 27, 471–479. doi: 10.1017/S1041610214001999.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lloyd, J., Patterson, T. and Muers, J. (2016). The positive aspects of caregiving in dementia: a critical review of the qualitative literature. Dementia, 15, 1534–1561. doi: 10.1177/1471301214564792.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lorig, K. et al. (2012). Building better caregivers: a pilot online support workshop for family caregivers of cognitively impaired adults. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 31, 423–437. doi: 10.1177/0733464810389806.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacCourt, P., McLennan, M., Somers, S. and Krawczyk, M. (2017). Effectiveness of a grief intervention for caregivers of people with dementia. Omega: Journal of Death and Dying, 75, 230–247. doi: 10.1177/0030222816652802.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marziali, E. and Garcia, L. J. (2011). Dementia caregivers' responses to 2 internet-based intervention programs. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Dementias, 26, 36–43. doi: 10.1177/1533317510387586.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McAuley, E. (1993). Self-efficacy and the maintenance of exercise participation in older adults. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 16, 103–113. doi: 10.1007/BF00844757.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moher, D., Liberate, A., Tetzlaff, J. and Altman, D. G. (2009). Preferred reporting item carers: a comparative study of carers of demented and nondemented older persons. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20, 591–592.Google Scholar
Moos, R., Cronkite, R., Billings, A. and Finney, J. (1985). Health and Daily Living Form Manual. Palo Alto, CA: Veterans Administration and Stanford University Medical Center.Google Scholar
Pearlin, L. I., Mullan, J. T., Semple, S. J. and Skaff, M. M. (1990). Caregiving and the stress process: an overview of concepts and their measures. The Gerontologist, 30, 583–594. doi: 10.1093/geront/30.5.583.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Picot, S. J. F., Youngblut, J. and Zeller, R. (1997) Development and testing of a measure of perceived caregiver rewards in adults. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 5, 33–52. doi: 10.1891/1061-3749.5.1.33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pope, N. D., Baldwin, P. K. and Lee, J. J. (2018). “I didn’t expect to learn as much as I did”: rewards of caregiving in young adulthood. Journal of Adult Development, 25, 186–197. doi: 10.1007/s10804-018-9284-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reilly, S. T. et al. (2020). What is important to people with dementia living at home? A set of core outcome items for use in the evaluation of non-pharmacological community based health and social care interventions. Age and Ageing, 49, 664–671. doi: 10.1093/ageing/afaa015 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanders, S. (2005). Is the glass half empty or half full? Social Work in Health Care, 40, 57–73. doi: 10.1300/J010v40n03_04.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seligman, M. E. (2002). Authentic Happiness. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Seligman, M. E., Steen, T. A., Park, N. and Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60, 410–421. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seligman, M. E. P. (1998). The president’s address. American Psychologist, 54, 559–562.Google Scholar
Sinclair, V. G. and Wallston, K. A. (2004). The development and psychometric evaluation of the brief resilient coping scale. Assessment, 11, 94–101. doi: 10.1177/1073191103258144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, B. W., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley, E., Christopher, P. and Bernard, J. (2008). The brief resilience scale: assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15, 194–200. doi: 10.1080/10705500802222972.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stansfeld, J., Stoner, C. R., Wenborn, J., Vernooij-Dassen, M., Moniz-Cook, E. and Orrell, M. (2017). Positive psychology outcome measures for family caregivers of people living with dementia: a systematic review. International Psychogeriatrics, 29, 1281–1296. doi: 10.1017/S1041610217000655.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steffen, A. M. and Gant, J. R. (2016). A telehealth behavioral coaching intervention for neurocognitive disorder family carers. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 31, 195–203. doi: 10.1002/gps.4312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steffen, A. M., McKibbin, C., Zeiss, A. M., Gallagher-Thompson, D. and Bandura, A. (2002). The revised scale for caregiving self-efficacy: reliability and validity studies. Journals of Gerontology – Series B Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57, 74–86. doi: 10.1093/geronb/57.1.P74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stockwell-Smith, G., Moyle, W. and Kellett, U. (2018). The impact of early psychosocial intervention on self-efficacy of care recipient/carer dyads living with early-stage dementia-A mixed-methods study. Journal of Advance Nursing, 74, 2167–2180. doi: 10.1111/jan.13710.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoner, C. (2019). Positive psychiatry/psychology for older adults: a new and important movement but robust methodology is essential. International Psychogeriatrics, 31,163–165. doi: 10.1017/S1041610218002223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoner, C. R., Orrell, M. and Spector, A. (2015). Review of positive psychology outcome measures for chronic illness, traumatic brain injury and older adults: adaptability in dementia? Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 40, 340–357. doi: 10.1159/000439044.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stoner, C. R., Stansfeld, J., Orrell, M. and Spector, A. (2017). The development of positive psychology outcome measures and their uses in dementia research: a systematic review. Dementia, 18, 1–22. doi: 10.1177/1471301217740288.Google ScholarPubMed
Tarlow, B. J., Wisniewski, S. R., Belle, S. H., Rubert, M., Ory, M. G. and Gallagher-Thompson, S. R. (2004). Positive aspects of caregiving: contributions of the REACH project to the development of new measures for Alzheimer’s caregiving. Research on Aging, 26, 429–453. doi: 10.1177/0164027504264493.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Terwee, C. B., et al. (2007). Quality criteria were proposed for measurement properties of health status questionnaires. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 60, 34–42. doi: 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2006.03.012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Knippenberg, R. J. M., de Vugt, M. E., Ponds, R. W., Myin-Germeys, I. and Verhey, F. R. J. (2018). An experience sampling method intervention for dementia caregivers: results of a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 26, 1231–1243. doi: 10.1016/j.jagp.2018.06.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vernooij-Dassen, M. J. (1993). Dementia and Homecare: Determinants of the Sense of Competence of Primary Caregivers and the Effect of Professionally Guided Caregiver Support. Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger.Google Scholar
Vernooij-Dassen, M. J., Felling, A. J., Brummelkamp, E., Dauzenberg, M. G., Bos, G. A. and Grol, R. (1999). Assessment of caregiver’s competence in dealing with the burden of caregiving for a dementia patient: a short sense of competence questionnaire (SSCQ) suitable for clinical practice. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 47, 256–257. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1999.tb04588.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waelde, L. C., Thompson, L. and Gallagher-Thompson, D. (2004). A pilot study of a yoga and meditation intervention for dementia caregiver stress. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 677–687. doi: 10.1002/jclp.10259.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wagnild, G. and Young, H. (1993). Development and psychometric evaluation of the resilience scale. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 1, 165–178.Google ScholarPubMed
Watson, D., Clark, L. A. and Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. Journal of Psychology, 54, 1063–1070. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063.Google ScholarPubMed
Wawrziczny, E. et al. (2019). A customized intervention for dementia caregivers: a quasi-experimental design. Journal of Aging and Health, 31, 1172–1195. doi: 10.1177/0898264318770056.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilks, S. E. (2008). Psychometric evaluation of the shortened resilience scale among Alzheimer’s caregivers. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Dementias, 23, 143–149. doi: 10.1177/1533317507313012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, V. P. et al. (2010). Video-based coping skills to reduce health risk and improve psychological and physical well-being in Alzheimer's disease family caregivers. Psychosomatic Medicine, 72, 897–904. doi: 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181fc2d09.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wong, T. W. K., Ussher, J. and Perz, J. (2009). Strength through adversity: Bereaved cancer carers’ accounts of rewards and personal growth from caring. Palliative and Supportive Care, 7, 187–196. doi: 10.1017/S1478951509000248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organisation. (2019). Dementia. Key Facts. WHO. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia; last accessed 12 March 2020.Google Scholar
Yamamoto-Mitani, N. et al. (2001). Development of instruments to measure appraisal of care among Japanese family caregivers of the elderly. Scholarly Inquiry for Nursing Practice, 15, 137–141. doi: 10.1891/0889-7182.15.2.113.Google ScholarPubMed
Yap, P., Luo, N., Ng, W. Y., Chionh, H. L., Lim, J. and Goh, J. (2010). Gain in Alzheimer care Instrument–a new scale to measure caregiving gains in dementia. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18, 68–76. doi: 10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181bd1dcd.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeiss, A., Gallagher-Thompson, D., Lovett, S., Rose, J. and McKibbin, C. (1999). Self-efficacy as a mediator of caregiver coping: development and testing of an assessment model. Journal of Clinical Geropsychology, 5, 221–230. doi: 10.1023/A:1022955817074.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, S. Y., Edwards, H., Yates, P., Ruth, E. and Guo, P. (2012). Development of self-efficacy questionnaire for Chinese family caregivers. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 21, 358–365. doi: 10.1111/j.1447-0349.2011.00791.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, S. Y., Edwards, H., Yates, P., Ruth, E. and Guo, P. (2013). Preliminary reliability and validity testing of a self-efficacy questionnaire for Chinese family caregivers. Aging and Mental Health, 17, 630–637. doi: 10.1080/13607863.2013.771615.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed