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The Red Cross and the Lessons of the Russian Civil War, 1918–26

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 June 2025

Kimberly A. Lowe Open the ORCID record for Kimberly A. Lowe [Opens in a new window]
Kimberly A. Lowe*
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Humanities and Social Sciences, Lesley University, Cambridge, MA, USA
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Email: klowe2@lesley.edu
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Abstract

In 1921 the international Red Cross movement passed a series of resolutions declaring they had a right and duty to intervene in civil wars, ‘social and revolutionary troubles’. This article focuses on the specific historical origins of the resolutions. It argues that these resolutions were a direct response to the Russian Civil War and designed to enable humanitarian interventions against Soviet Russia and other communist revolutionaries. The ICRC followed through on these intentions with robust efforts to access political prisoners in Soviet Russia. However, other parties embraced these resolutions and applied them to nationalist and anti-colonial struggles, such as the Third Silesian Uprising, Irish Civil War and Rif War. These conflicts did not fit the template of the Russian Civil War, leading to reluctant, cautious and often ineffective interventions by the ICRC. The open-ended language of the resolutions hid a much more direct historical context that restricted its viable application.

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Contemporary European History , First View , pp. 1 - 17
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© The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press.

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References

1 See Robert Gerwarth, The Vanquished: Why the First World War Failed to End (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2016); Robert Gerwarth and Erez Manela, eds., Empires at War, 1911–1923 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014).

2 See Davide Rodogno, Night on Earth: A History of International Humanitarianism in the Near East, 1918–1930 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021); Jaclyn Granick, International Jewish Humanitarianism in the Age of the Great War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021); Patrick J. Houlihan, ‘Renovating Christian Charity: Global Catholicism, the Save the Children Fund, and Humanitarianism during the First World War’, Past & Present 250, no. 1, (2021): 203–41, https://doi.org/10.1093/pastj/gtaa010; Bruno Cabanes, The Great War and the Origins of Humanitarianism, 1918–1924 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014); Emily Baughan, ‘“Every Citizen of Empire Implored to Save the Children!” Empire, Internationalism and the Save the Children Fund in Inter-War Britain’, Historical Research 86, no. 231 (February 2013): 116–37, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2281.2012.00608.x.

3 A movement in that it consisted of numerous separate organisations cooperating under mutually determined principles. The movement consists of three parts: the national Red Cross/Red Crescent societies, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC; in 1919 this organisation was known as the League of Red Cross Societies) and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). The national societies belong to the IFRC, but the ICRC is independent of the other two parts. The ICRC has no formal control over the activities of the national societies except for granting official recognition. On a regular basis all parts of the movement gather at international conferences to determine guiding principles and practices. Since 1928 the responsibility for convening these conferences and providing guidance on their resolutions has rested with the Standing Commission of the Red Cross and Red Crescent. The Red Crescent has been accepted as a symbol of the Red Cross since 1877 and was officially recognised as a Red Cross emblem in 1929.

4 Dixième Conférence Internationale De La Croix-Rouge, Tenue À Genève Du 30 Mars Au 7 Avril 1921: Compte Rendu (Genève: Albert Renaud, 1921), 160.

5 See Eyal Benvenisti and Doreen Lustig, ‘Monopolizing War: Codifying the Laws of War to Reassert Governmental Authority, 1856–1874’, European Journal of International Law 31, no. 1 (2020): 127–69, https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chaa013.

6 Giovanni Mantilla, Lawmaking Under Pressure: International Humanitarian Law and Internal Armed Conflict (Ithaca: Cornell University Press), 57.

7 Boyd van Dijk, Preparing for War: The Making of the Geneva Conventions (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022), 106.

8 See Mantilla, Lawmaking Under Pressure, 58–64; van Dijk, Preparing for War, 109–10; Kimberly Lowe, ‘The Red Cross and the Laws of War, 1863–1949: International Rights Activism before Human Rights’, in The Routledge History of Human Rights, ed. Lora Wildenthal and Jean Quataert (New York: Routledge, 2019).

9 Jacques Moreillon, Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge et la protection des détenus politiques (Lausanne: Institut Henry-Dunant, 1973), 52; François Bugnion, The International Committee of the Red Cross and the Protection of War Victims, trans. Patricia Coldberg, Edward Markee and Nicolas Summer (Oxford: Macmillan Education, 2003), 262.

10 Bugnion, International Committee of the Red Cross, 262; Moreillon, Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge, 56.

11 Mantilla, Lawmaking Under Pressure, 54–7; van Dijk, Preparing for War, 104–6.

12 Mantilla, Lawmaking Under Pressure, 56.

13 Jean-François Fayet, VOKS: Le laboratoire helvétique. Histoire de la diplomatie culturelle soviétique durant l’entre-deux-guerres (Chêne-Bourg: Georg, 2014), 93–5.

14 David S. Foglesong, America’s Secret War against Bolshevism: U.S. Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1917–1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); E. T. Vardağlı,

‘Humanitarian Organizations in the “Greater Near East”: A Shield Against the Soviet Russia’,

The International History Review 45, no. 4 (2023): 718–33, https://doi.org/10.1080/07075332.2023.2184846; Tomás Irish, Feeding the Mind: Humanitarianism and the Reconstruction of European Intellectual Life, 1919–1933 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2024).

15 Tomás Irish, ‘Educating Those Who Matter: Thomas Whittemore, Russian Refugees and the Transnational Organization of Elite Humanitarianism after the First World War’, European Review of History: Revue européenne d’histoire 28, no. 3 (2021): 444.

16 See Pascal Daudin, ‘The Rif War: A Forgotten War?’, International Review of the Red Cross, no. 105 (2023): 934–7; Lia Brazil, ‘Women Prisoners and the Limits of Humanitarian Intervention: The International Committee of the Red Cross and the Irish Civil War’, The English Historical Review 140, no. 602 (2025): 134–62, https://doi.org/10.1093/ehr/ceaf026; Gerald Steinacher, Humanitarians at War: The Red Cross in the Shadow of the Holocaust (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 23–4; van Dijk, Preparing for War, 106.

17 Quoted in André Durand, The International Committee of the Red Cross (Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross, 1982), 11.

18 In 1884 the movement officially endorsed the principle of ‘sympathy and deference towards the military authority in times of peace; absolute obedience in times of war’. Troisième Conférence Internationale des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, tenue à Genève du 1er au 6 Septembre 1884: Compte Rendu (Geneva: Comité international de la Croix-Rouge, 1885), 139–40. All translations from the French are my own, unless otherwise noted. See also Lowe, ‘The Red Cross and the Laws of War, 1863–1949’, 78–82; John F. Hutchinson, Champions of Charity: War and the Rise of the Red Cross (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), 105–49.

19 Comité International, ‘Les Dix Premières Années de la Croix Rouge’, Bulletin International des Sociétés de Secours aux Militaires Blessés 4, no. 16 (July 1873): 235.

20 Troisième Conférence . . . Compte Rendu, 239–41.

21 For further details see Moreillon, Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge, 23–34.

22 Neuvième Conférence Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, tenue à Washington du 7 au 17 Mai 1912: Compte Rendu, Washington: American Red Cross, 1912, 45–9. See also Kimberly Lowe, ‘Humanitarianism and National Sovereignty: Red Cross Intervention on Behalf of Political Prisoners in Soviet Russia, 1921–3’, Journal of Contemporary History 49, no. 4 (2014): 658–9.

23 Minutes, 10 May 1912, Commission chargée de préciser les fonctions de la Croix-Rouge en cas de guerre civile, CR 22-1, 32, Archives du Comité Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Geneva (henceforth ACICR).

24 Jean-François Fayet, ‘Le CICR et la Russie: un peu plus que de l’humanitaire’, Connexe: L’URSS et la Russie contemporaine face à l’humanitaire 1 (2015): 55–74.

25 Andrew Ringlee, The Romanovs’ Militant Charity: The Red Cross and Public Mobilization for War in Tsarist Russia, 1853–1914 (PhD diss., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2016), https://doi.org/10.17615/hrw8-d579; С. И. Голотик and С. С. Ипполитов, «Российское общества красного креста (1917–30-е гг.)», Новый исторический вестник (2001).

26 Jean-François Fayet, ‘The Russian Red Cross in the Civil War’, Quaestio Rossica 9, no. 1 (2021): 190–1; ‘Russie: Dissolution violente du Comité central de la Société russe de la Croix-Rouge’, Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, no. 194 (Apr. 1918): 298.

27 Fayet, ‘The Russian Red Cross and Civil War’, 192; 195.

28 Croix-Rouge Finlandaise, Rapport Général, Xme Conférence Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Genève, 30 mars 1921, 2.

29 Croix-Rouge Finlandaise, Quelques points de vue se rattachant à la discussion sur la situation et le rôle de la Croix-Rouge dans la guerre civile, Xme Conférence Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Genève, 30 mars 1921, 1–3; Lauri Hannikainen, Raijka Hanski and Allan Rosas, Implementing Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflicts: The Case of Finland (Dordrecht: Marinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1992), 16.

30 See, for example, Will Smiley, ‘Lawless Wars of Empire? The International Law of War in the Philippines, 1898–1903’, Law and History Review 36, no. 3 (2018): 511–50, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0738248017000682.

31 Fayet, ‘The Russian Red Cross and Civil War’, 193.

32 Dr Kholodny, ‘Ukraine: La Croix-Rouge ukrainienne en 1919 et 1920’, Revue internationale de la Croix-Rouge et Bulletin International des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, no. 27 (Mar. 1921), 313–16. By November 1920 they were operating eleven sanatoriums of 1,200 beds, had deployed fifteen new field hospitals in the Chernihiv governorate, and were organising an additional thirty hospitals for the Kiev governorate.

33 CICR, Rapport Général du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge sur son activité de 1912 à 1920, Xme Conférence Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Genève, 30 mars 1921 (Genève, 1921), 186–7.

34 E. Frick, ‘Rapport du Représentant du Comité International, en Russie’, 1 Nov. 1918, CR00/50a-165, ACICR; Rapport Général du CICR sur son activité de 1912 à 1920, 187–8.

35 Jiri Toman, La Russie et la Croix-Rouge, 1917–1945: la Croix-Rouge dans un état révolutionnaire et l’action du CICR en Russie après la Révolution d’octobre 1917 (Geneva: Institut Henry-Dunant, 1997), 20. Russia had both signed and ratified the Geneva Conventions of 1864 and 1906.

36 Fayet, ‘The Russian Red Cross in the Civil War’, 191.

37 International recognition would also have created opportunities for Russian Red Cross delegates to travel from Moscow to countries officially closed to the Soviet government. Continuity with the former society would also have strengthened Moscow’s claim to Russian Red Cross assets abroad. See Fayet, ‘The Russian Red Cross in the Civil War’, 198.

38 E. Frick, Memorandum, 20 Aug. 1918, CR00/50c-174-0, ACICR. See also Fayet, ‘Le CICR et la Russie’, 58–62.

39 See S.Y. Bagotzky to ICRC, letter, 16 May 1920, CR00/50c-174-42, ACICR; Z.P. Soloviev to ICRC, telegram, 16 Mar. 1921, CR00/50c-176-104, ACICR; ICRC to S.Y. Bagotzky, letter, 30 Jul. 1919, CR00/50c-174-28, ACICR.

40 Lucien Cramer, ‘La Question des Otages en temps de guerre civile’, Dec. 1944, CR 22-2, ACICR.

41 CICR, Rapport Général … 1912 à 1920, 191–3. For more details about Brandström’s work, see Lena Radauer, ‘Brändström, Elsa’, in 1914–1918 Online: International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2014-10-08, https://doi.org/10.15463/ie1418.10455.

42 Frick continued to serve as the ICRC’s head of missions in Eastern Europe after leaving Russia.

43 Fayet, ‘The Russian Red Cross in the Civil War’, 194. Dr Zenovi Soloviev, chief of the military and nursing department of the People’s Commissar of Health (Narkomzdrav), became the head of the Moscow-based Soviet Russian Red Cross in July.

44 CICR, Rapport Général … 1912 à 1920, 193–4.

45 Dr Georges Lodygensky, ‘La Croix-Rouge et la guerre civile’, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, no. 10 (Oct. 1919), 1159.

46 Dr Georges Lodygensky, ‘La Croix-Rouge et la guerre civile. 2me Article. En Russie de 1919 à 1920’, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, no. 18 (June 1920): 658. In 1919 Lodygensky is listed as a representative of the Danish Red Cross, and in 1920 as a representative of the Russian Red Cross. He had been a Tsarist officer assigned to the Russian Red Cross’s twenty-second nursing attachment in Kyev since 1915. He operated the 300-bed Grand Duke Mikahail Hospital, which was renamed the Kyev Hospital of the Russian Red Cross in Spring 1917. By January 1918 the hospital had seen thirteen regime changes among Ukrainian nationalists, the Red Army and German troops. See Fayet, ‘The Russian Red Cross in the Civil War’, 195–6.

47 Lodygensky, ‘La Croix-Rouge et la guerre civile’, 1171–2; Lodygensky, ‘La Croix-Rouge et la guerre civile. (2me article)’, 657.

48 Lodygensky, ‘La Croix-Rouge et la guerre civile. (2me article)’, 657–8.

49 Lodygensky, ‘La Croix-Rouge et la guerre civile. (2me article)’, 659–60. De Muller and Simonett had been sent to the city on a mission to repatriate Russian prisoners of war from the Great War.

50 Max de Muller and Anton Simonett, ‘Mission dans la Russie du Sud’, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, no. 17 (May 1920): 522–3.

51 Lodygensky, ‘La Croix-Rouge et la guerre civile. (2me article)’, 665.

52 Mantilla, Lawmaking Under Pressure, 54–5. Records of Lodygensky’s letters and meetings on this topic are found in B CR 22/1, ACICR.

53 Major E. Lederrey, ‘Rapport sur le transbordement du materiel sanitarie, parti de Vienne le 15.IX [sic] sour la protection du Comité International de la Croix Rouge et réunis les 2 et 3 XI [sic] par le Major Lederrey, Délégué de ce Comité au Dr Sevinski, Représentant du Gouvernement ukrainien [Ministère de la Santé]’, 12 Dec. 1919, MIS 27(1)-21, ACICR; O. Ehrenhold (Vienna) to R.M. Cramer (Geneva), ‘Rapport No. 1’, 18 June 1919, MIS 21-7, ACICR. E. Frick (Geneva), note, June 1920, MIS 27(2)-74, ACICR; 29 June 1920, de Sturler (Oderberg) to CICR (Geneva), letter, 29 June 1920, MIS 27(2)-104, ACICR; Dr M. Von Wyss and Dr V. Demole, ‘Rapport sur la Mission antiépidémique en Ukraine’, 25 Sept. 1920, MIS 27(3)-137, ACICR.

54 E. Frick (Geneva), note, June 1920, MIS 27(2)-74, ACICR; 29 June 1920, de Sturler (Oderberg) to CICR (Geneva), letter, 29 June 1920, MIS 27(2)-104, ACICR; Dr M. Von Wyss and Dr V. Demole, ‘Rapport sur la Mission antiépidémique en Ukraine’, 25 Sept. 1920, MIS 27(3)-137, ACICR.

55 Dr Kholodny, French translation and extracts from a letter sent from Kyiv, 7 Oct. 1920, MIS 27(3)-141, ACICR.

56 Kimberly A. Lowe ‘The International Committee of the Red Cross and the Reconstruction of the New Europe, 1918–1923’, in A New Europe, 1918–1923: Instability, Innovation, Recovery, ed. Bartosz Dziewanowski-Stefańczyk and Jay Winter, European Network Remembrance and Solidarity (London: Routledge, 2022), 163.

57 Louis Léopold, ‘Le régime soviétiste en Hongrie du 21 mars au 1er août 1919 et la Convention de Genève’, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge et Bulletin international des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, no. 12 (1919): 1427–39. Louis Léopold was a member of the Hungarian Red Cross and assisted Haccius during his time in Budapest.

58 Dixième Conférence … Compte Rendu, 163.

59 Dixième Conférence … Compte Rendu, 160.

60 Dixième Conférence … Compte Rendu, 218.

61 Dixième Conférence … Compte Rendu, 161.

62 Dixième Conférence … Compte Rendu, 161.

63 Dixième Conférence … Compte Rendu, 215.

64 Established under the chairmanship of P.N. Ignatiev, B.E. Ivanitsky and B.E. Nolde. Toman, La Russie et la Croix-Rouge, 33.

65 Fayet, ‘The Russian Red Cross in the Civil War’, 199.

66 The representative of the Moscow Russian Red Cross in Geneva, Dr S.Y. Bagotzky, attended meetings in his private capacity but did not speak or otherwise participate in the deliberations. See Fayet, VOKS, 93.

67 Dixième Conférence … Compte Rendu, 45–7.

68 Dixième Conférence … Compte Rendu, 56–9; 114–17.

69 Dixième Conférence … Compte Rendu, 124.

70 The German, American, Finnish, British Indian, Italian, Mexican, Polish, Portuguese, (Paris) Russian and Ukrainian Red Cross societies all had a representative on the Third Commission.

71 Commission III, minutes, 31 March 1921, Commissions 1921, 7.

72 Commission III, minutes, 2 April 1921, Commissions 1921, 3.

73 Commission III, minutes, 2 April 1921, Commissions 1921, 4. The American Red Cross Commissioner for Europe, Colonel Robert E. Olds, advised that this question should be decided by the First Commission for the revision of the Geneva Convention, so the Third Commission did not vote on Lodygensky’s resolution. Instead, Czamansky reintroduced the resolution at the Plenary Assembly on 4 April. Czamansky’s resolution made the anti-Bolshevik intent even clearer, as he called for the Moscow organisation to be called the ‘Soviet Red Cross’.

74 Commission III, minutes, 4 April 1921, Commissions 1921, 12; see also Georgeoliani’s comments on pages 15–16.

75 Commission III, minutes, 4 April 1921, Commissions 1921, 13.

76 Commission III, minutes, 4 April 1921, Commissions 1921, 14.

77 Commission III, minutes, 4 April 1921, Commissions 1921, 14.

78 Dixième Conférence … Compte Rendu, 217. Resolution XIV, Cas Exceptionnels I.

79 Commission III, minutes, 4 April 1921, Commissions 1921, 25.

80 Commission III, minutes, 4 April 1921, Commissions 1921, 20; 22–3.

81 Commission III, minutes, 4 April 1921, Commissions 1921, 31–2.

82 Commission III, minutes, 4 April 1921, Commissions 1921, 162. Lodygensky submitted this resolution directly to the Plenary Assembly because the Third Commission decided that, having been tasked with determining the role of the Red Cross during civil wars, a resolution of this type was not within their purview. Commission III, minutes, 4 April 1921, Commissions 1921, 29–31.

83 The report of the session does not provide an exact count of votes for or against Lodygensky’s resolution but does make it clear that the resolutions from the Third Commission were adopted unanimously, while Lodygensky’s resolution was not.

84 Dixième Conférence … Compte Rendu, 66.

85 Dixième Conférence … Compte Rendu, 189.

86 W. Wehrlin to ICRC, letter, 21 Dec. 1921, B CR 110-001.01 Otages et détenus politiques 08.10.1921-15.06.1927, No. 6, ACICR; W. Wehrlin to ICRC, letter, 27 May 1922, B CR 110-001.01, No. 70, ACICR.

87 See Kimberly A. Lowe, ‘Humanitarianism and National Sovereignty: Red Cross Intervention on Behalf of Political Prisoners in Soviet Russia, 1921–3’, Journal of Contemporary History 49, no. 4 (2014): 652–74.

88 Procès-verbal, 23 Aug. 1922, Commissions des Missions, ACICR. Wehrlin remained in the Soviet Union until 1938. See Jean-François Fayet and Peter Huber, ‘La Mission Wehrlin du CICR en Union Soviétique (1920–1938)’, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge 85, no. 849 (2003): 95–118.

89 CICR, Rapport Général du Comité International de la Croix-Rouge sur son Activité de 1925 à 1928 (Geneva: CICR, 1928), 24–5.

90 Quoted in Rapport Général … 1912 à 1920, 17.

91 Richard Blanke, Orphans of Versailles: The Germans in Western Poland, 1918–1939 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993), 26–8.

92 Lucien Cramer, ‘Rapport Sur La Mission Du Comité International De La Croix-Rouge En Haute-Silésie’, Revue Internationale De La Croix-Rouge Et Bulletin International Des Sociétés De La Croix-Rouge 3, no. 31 (July 1921): 691–720.

93 Brazil, ‘Women Prisoners’, 11.

94 G. Ador to ICRC, letter, 12 Dec. 1922, CR 22 Guerre Civile, 11/72, ACICR; H.B. Champain to ICRC, letter, 13 Dec. 1922, CR 22, 11/73, ACICR; D. Fitzgerald (Minister of External Affairs) to ICRC, telegram, 26 Jan. 1921, CR 22, 11/89, ACICR. The ICRC also investigated the possibility of organising a new Irish Red Cross to no avail.

95 Rapport General de Mr. R. Haccius, délégué en Irlande, à CICR (Commission des Missions), CR 22- 11/134; ‘Irlande’, ICRC note [Apr. 1923], CR 22, 11/133, ACICR.

96 Haccius’ report was published as ‘En Irlande. Avril–Mai 1923’, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge et Bulletin international des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge 5, no. 54 (1923): 607–16.

97 For examples of dissatisfaction with the report, see Dáil Éireann, debate of 12 Jul. 1923, Irish Free State, Díosbóireachtaí páirliminte/Parliamentary Debates, Tuairisg oifigiúil/Official Report, volume 4 (Dublin, 1923), 668; and Anonymous to Miss Balch, letter, 9 Jun. 1923, CR 22, 11/154bis, ACICR.

98 In 1912 the Treaty of Fez between France and the Sultan of Morocco created a French protectorate in Morocco. A separate 1912 treaty between France and Spain established two Spanish-controlled zones in the north. The Treaty of Versailles (1919) confirmed this joint French and Spanish control of Morocco. Daudin, ‘The Rif War’, 915–7.

99 Pablo la Porte, ‘Humanitarian Assistance during the Rif War (Morocco, 1921–6): The International Committee of the Red Cross and “an Unfortunate Affair”’, Historical Research 89, no. 243 (2016): 114–35.

100 CICR, Rapport Général du Comité International de la Croix-Rouge sur son Activité de 1921 à 1923, Genève, CICR, 1923, 55–8; CICR, Rapport Général du Comité International de la Croix-Rouge sur son Activité de 1923 à 1925, Genève, CICR, 1925, 12–13, 48–9. CICR, Rapport Général du Comité International de la Croix-Rouge sur son Activité de 1925 à 1928, Genève, CICR, 1928, 17–23; CICR, Rapport Général du Comité International de la Croix-Rouge sur son Activité de 1928 à 1930, Genève, CICR, 1930, 21–2.

101 CICR, Rapport complémentaire sur l’activité du Comité internationale de la Croix-Rouge relative à la guerre civile en Espagne (du 1er juin 1938 au 31 août 1939) et à ses suites, XVIIe Conférence Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Stockholm, Août 1948 (Genève: Mai 1948), 13. See also CICR, Rapport Général du Comité International de la Croix-Rouge sur son Activité d’Août 1934 à Mars 1938 (Genève: Comité International de la Croix-Rouge, 1938), 100–38.

102 See Marco T. Lecco, ‘Serbie’, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge et Bulletin international des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, no. 71 (Nov. 1924) : 925–9. Lucien Cramer, ‘La visite des prisons du Montenegro en avril–mai 1925’, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge et Bulletin international des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, no. 78 (June 1925): 385–96; CICR, Rapport Général du Comité International de la Croix-Rouge sur son Activité de 1923 à 1925 (Genève: CICR, 1925), 13. CICR, Rapport général du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge sur son activité de 1930 à 1934, XVe Conférence Internationale de la Croix-Rouge, Tokyo, 20 Oct. 1934 (Genève: CICR, 1934), 16; Moreillon, Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge, 84–5. ‘Comité international. Mission en Autriche’, Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge et Bulletin international des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, no. 191 (Nov. 1934): 945–7. CICR, Rapport général du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge sur son activité d’août 1934 à mars 1938, XVIe Conférence internationale de la Croix-Rouge, London 20–4 June 1938 (Genève: CICR, 1938), 39.

103 See, for example, Steinacher, Humanitarians at War; J.-C. Favez, The Red Cross and the Holocaust (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 20.

104 See Boyd van Dijk, ‘Marguerite Frick-Cramer: A Life Spent Shaping the Geneva Conventions’, in Portraits of Women in International Law: New Names and Forgotten Faces?, ed. Immi Tallgren (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2023): 234–243, https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198868453.003.0018.

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