Introduction
South-west Asia has been traversed by humans migrating out of and back into Africa and across Eurasia since the Pleistocene (c. 2.58 million to 11 700 years ago) (Groucutt et al. Reference Groucutt2015; Dennell Reference Dennell, Gallotti and Mussi2018). Global climatic changes over this period caused recurring dry and wet cycles in South-west Asia, periodically transforming this arid region into a greener environment and influencing hominin presence, migration and interactions (Groucutt et al. Reference Groucutt2021). South-west Asia is therefore a key region for studying the evolution and behavioural adaptation of early humans. Thus far, however, research has largely focused on the Levant (Shea Reference Shea2003; Dennell Reference Dennell, Gallotti and Mussi2018), the Zagros Mountains (Solecki Reference Solecki1963; Lindly Reference Lindly2005; Nymark Reference Nymark, Biglari, Shidrang and Mashkourin press) and the Arabian Desert (Scerri et al. Reference Scerri2021). The Iraqi Western Desert (IWD), lying at the north-eastern edge of the Arabian desert, has been largely neglected, despite its central location and proven potential (Field Reference Field1960; Chmielewski & Kozlowski Reference Chmielewski and Kozlowski1985; Ohnuma Reference Ohnuma1998). Due to a lack of geomorphological contextual information and the perceived absence of diagnostic material, Palaeolithic finds from the IWD are not often considered in palaeo-anthropological syntheses on human evolution and behaviour. The Geomorphological and Palaeolithic Survey of the Western Desert of Iraq was initiated to address this lacuna. Here, we present the first results from our December 2024 survey.
The Iraqi Western Desert (IWD)
To the north of the Arabian Peninsula the IWD covers the western part of Iraq (Figure 1), extending west into the Syrian Desert and south into the Arabian Desert. In Najaf province, the landscape is characterised by carbonate rocks, shallow valleys and occasional karstic depressions. Between October and April, seasonal lakes form in some depressions.
Figure 1. The location of Najaf province in the Iraqi Western Desert (A & B). The Shbicha region (rectangle in B), around Al-Shabakah/Shbicha, is located approximately 150km south-west of Najaf. Also shown is a Google satellite image of Shbicha (C), showing the village, Palaeolithic findspots and Shbicha-1 (small rectangle) (figure by authors).
Methods
Satellite imagery, elevation (using a forest and buildings removed Copernicus digital elevation model (FABDEM) 30m resolution) and geological data (Sissakian Reference Sissakian2000) were analysed in QGIS (v. 3.34-7) and combined with field observations to produce a preliminary geomorphological map of Najaf province. Different geomorphological features were targeted for fieldwalking to assess their archaeological potential. Temporal constraints meant that only one Palaeolithic findspot (Shbicha-1) could be surveyed systematically in this field season. A 400 × 300m area across the findspot was gridded by a 100m grid. All surface-level artefacts within a 10m radius of each grid point were collected for analysis, systematically sub-sampling the vast quantity of lithics at the site.
Results
Seven Palaeolithic findspots were identified in a 10 × 20km area around Al-Shabakah/Shbicha (Figure 1C), all associated with flint outcrops on bedrock prominences around the Shbicha depression (Figure 2). Fluvio-lacustrine sediments fill this depression and, though not yet directly dated, deposits likely date back to the Pliocene–Pleistocene (beginning c. 5.3 million years ago) (Sissakian Reference Sissakian2000). Ephemeral lakes still form in parts of the depression, fed by seasonal rainwater. Today one largely dried up spring is located centrally in the Shbicha depression along an escarpment, and a valley runs north-east of the depression towards the Mesopotamian floodplain.
Figure 2. Examples of finds and raw material sources at identified Palaeolithic findspots. Numbers correspond to those on the map (figure by authors).
Lower and Middle Palaeolithic artefacts are identified at all findspots; these are predominantly made on local flint, demonstrating localised exploitation of raw materials at various points throughout the Pleistocene.
Shbicha-1
This findspot is located on a bedrock prominence along the northern edge of the Shbicha depression (Figure 3). Here, limestone bedrock is capped by locally variable flint beds that break up and erode from it. To the south the prominence looks out over the depression, approximately 1200m from the current-day extent of seasonal wetlands. Systematic survey revealed the extent of lithic scatters (Figure 4) and sub-sampling saw the collection of 722 flint cores, flakes, tools and handaxes attributed to the Lower or Middle Palaeolithic (Table 1 & Figure 5). Techno-typological assessment, including distribution analysis, is ongoing, but Middle Palaeolithic material is most prevalent. Handaxes exhibit various typological morphologies, with two comparable to examples from An Nasim (Scerri et al. Reference Scerri2021), some 400km south-west of Shbicha-1. Levallois cores with uni- and bi-directional and convergent preparation are present, resembling prepared cores from sites in the Arabian Peninsula (Groucutt et al. Reference Groucutt2015).
Figure 3. Digital elevation model (FABDEM) of Shbicha (figure by authors).
Figure 4. A) Google satellite image of Shbicha-1; B) artefact distribution across Shbicha-1; C) view of the site, looking north (figure by authors).
Table 1. Shbicha-1 artefact types.
Figure 5. Examples of handaxes and Levallois cores from Shbicha-1 (figure by authors).
Discussion and conclusions
Lithics from Shbicha region demonstrate repeated episodes of localised raw material exploitation over long periods during the Pleistocene, suggesting well-developed knowledge of the local physical environment. The findspots are located near seasonal lakes, which were likely more prevalent during the wetter phases of the Pleistocene, offering access to raw material in proximity to water and the animals that the lakes attracted.
Shbicha-1 is the first site in the IWD to produce a substantial number of Lower and Middle Palaeolithic artefacts from a well-defined context. These finds enable the first quantitative regional techno-typological analysis, enhancing our understanding of the Palaeolithic in the wider region. The Acheulean material can improve our knowledge of early hominin dispersals, dated in the Arabian Desert to 400–200ka (Groucutt et al. Reference Groucutt2021); similarities in the types of handaxes found at Shbicha-1 and An Nasim potentially reveal routes for migration or cultural transmission.
Evidence from the IWD could also be informative for tracking northward dispersal routes of Homo sapiens or for defining the southernmost extent of Neanderthal migration (Groucutt et al. Reference Groucutt2018; Heydari-Guran et al. Reference Heydari-Guran, Yousefi, Kafash and Ghasidian2024). Elucidation of techno-typological links between the IWD, the Levant, Zagros and Arabian Peninsula will further enhance our understanding of hominin technological variability, dispersal, expansion and landscape use in South-west Asia.
Future research will focus on the systematic survey of other findspots, techno-typological lithic analyses and spatio-temporal patterns in hominin landscape use and raw material exploitation. Identification of in situ archaeological deposits and palaeoenvironmental records will help situate these lithics in chronostratigraphic and environmental contexts. The insights in findspot distribution and geomorphological history from Shbicha provide a basis for further investigation of the wider Iraqi Desert.
Acknowledgements
This work was conducted under the permission of the Iraqi State Board of Antiquities and Heritage and we thank them for their support. We are grateful to the governor and residents of Shbicha for their hospitality.
Funding statement
This fieldwork was funded by a British Institute for the Study of Iraq Pilot Project Grant, 2023.
Data availability statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Author contributions: using CRediT categories
Ella Egberts: Conceptualization-Lead, Data curation-Equal, Formal analysis-Equal, Funding acquisition-Lead, Investigation-Equal, Methodology-Equal, Project administration-Lead, Resources-Equal, Visualization-Lead, Writing - original draft-Lead, Writing - review & editing-Equal. Andreas Nymark: Data curation-Equal, Formal analysis-Lead, Investigation-Equal, Methodology-Equal, Writing - original draft-Supporting, Writing - review & editing-Equal. Jaafar Jotheri: Conceptualization-Supporting, Data curation-Equal, Funding acquisition-Supporting, Investigation-Equal, Project administration-Equal, Resources-Equal, Writing - review & editing-Supporting.
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