Hostname: page-component-cb9f654ff-fg9bn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-08-19T23:25:46.342Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Older Than We Thought: Implications of Corrected Dates for Paleoindians

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Stuart J. Fiedel
Stuart J. Fiedel*
Affiliation:
John Milner Associates, 5250 Cherokee Avenue, Suite 410, Alexandria, VA 22312
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Radiocarbon dates for the terminal Pleistocene are about 2,000 years too young. Furthermore, because of significant carbon perturbations that are manifest as plateaus or abrupt jumps in age, radiocarbon dates of ca. 12,500 to 10,000 B.P. [14C] must be critically evaluated. The first successful human colonization of the Americas occurred not 11,500 but about 13,500 years ago. This basic chronological revision has important implications for models of Paleoindian colonization, population expansion, and genetic and linguistic divergence.

Résumé

Résumé

Las fechas radiocarbónicas para el final de Pleistoceno son alrededor de 2.000 años más jóvenes de lo que realmente son. Además, por causa de perturbaciones significativas de carbón que son manifestadas como mesetas o saltos abruptos de edad, las fechas radiocarbónicas de 12.500 a 10.000 a.p. [14C] deben evaluarse con extremo cuidado. La primera colonización humana del continente americano que tuvo éxito ocurrió, no 11.500, pero 13.500 años atrás. Esta revisión básica de cronología tiene implicaciones importantes para los modelos de colonización de los Paleoindios, el crecimiento de su población, y su divergencia genética y lingüística.

Information

Type
Reports
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 64 , Issue 1 , January 1999 , pp. 95 - 115
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Archaeology 1999

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

References Cited

Adovasio, J. M., Donahue, J., and Stuckenrath, R. 1990 The Meadowcroft Rockshelter Radiocarbon Chronology 1975-1990. American Antiquity 55: 348–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, B. D., and Anderson, R. Y. 1993 Evidence from Western North America for Rapid Shifts in Climate During the Last Glacial Maximum. Science 260: 1920–1923.Google Scholar
Alley, R. B., Meese, D. A., Shuman, C. A., Gow, A. J., 1993 Abrupt Increase in Greenland Snow Accumulation at the End of the Younger Dryas Event. Nature 362: 527–529.Google Scholar
Ammann, B., and Lotter, A.F. 1989 Late-Glacial Radiocarbon- and Palynostratigraphy on the Swiss Plateau. Boreas 18: 109–126.Google Scholar
Anderson, D. G., O'Steen, L. D., and Sassaman, K. E. 1996 Environmental and Chronological Considerations. In The Paleoindian and Early Archaic Southeast, edited by Anderson, D. G. and Sassaman, K.E. pp. 3–15. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Aveleyra A. de Anda, L. 1956 The Second Mammoth and Associated Artifacts at Santa Isabel Iztapan, Mexico. American Antiquity 22: 12–28.Google Scholar
Bard, E., Hamelin, B., Fairbanks, R. G., and Zindler, A. 1990 Calibration of the l4C Timescale over the Past 30,000 Years Using Mass Spectrometric U-Th Ages from Barbados Corals. Nature 345: 405–410.Google Scholar
Bard, E., Arnold, M., Fairbanks, R.G., and Hamelin, B. 1993 230Th-234U and 14C Ages Obtained by Mass Spectrometry on Corals. Radiocarbon 35: 191–199.Google Scholar
Bard, E., Rostek, F., and Sonzogni, C. 1997 Interhemispheric Synchrony of the Last Deglaciation Inferred from Alkenone Palaeothermometry. Nature 385: 707–710.Google Scholar
Beerling, D. J., Birks, H. H., and Woodward, F. I. 1995 Rapid Late-Glacial Atmospheric CO2 Changes Reconstructed from the Stomatal Density Record of Fossil Leaves. Journal of Quaternary Science 10: 379–384.Google Scholar
Benson, L., Burdett, J. W., Lund, S. P., Kashgarian, M., 1997 Nearly Synchronous Climate Change in the Northern Hemisphere during the Last Glacial Termination. Nature 388: 263–265.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benson, L., Lund, S. P., Burdett, J. W., Kashgarian, M., 1998 Correlation of Late-Pleistocene Lake-Level Oscillations in Mono Lake, California, with North Atlantic Climate Events. Quaternary Research 49: 1–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bjorck, S., Kromer, B., Johnsen, S., Bennike, O., 1996 Synchronized Terrestrial-Atmospheric Deglacial Records Around the North Atlantic. Science 274: 1155–1160.Google Scholar
Blunier, T., Schwander, J., Stauffer, B., Stocker, T., 1997 Timing of the Antarctic Cold Reversal and the Atmospheric C02 Increase with Respect to the Younger Dryas Event. Geophysical Research Letters 24(21): 2683–2686.Google Scholar
Boldurian, A. T. 1990 Lithic Technology at the Mitchell Locality at Blackwater Draw: A Stratified Folsom Site in Eastern New Mexico. Plains Anthropologist 35, Memoir 24: 1–115.Google Scholar
Bonatto, S. L., and Salzano, F. M. 1997 Diversity and Age of the Four Major mtDNA Haplogroups, and Their Implications for the Peopling of the New World. American Journal of Human Genetics 61: 1413–1423.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brook, E. J., Sowers, T. and Orchado, J. 1996 Rapid Variations in Atmospheric Methane Concentration During the Past 110,000 Years. Science 273: 1087–1090.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brose, D. S. 1994 Archaeological Investigations at the Paleo Crossing Site, a Paleoindian Occupation in Medina County, Ohio. In The First Discovery of America, Archaeological Evidence of the Early Inhabitants of the Ohio Area, edited by Dancey, W. S., pp. 61–76. Ohio Archaeological Council, Inc., Columbus.Google Scholar
Broster, J. B., and Norton, M. R. 1996 Recent Paleoindian Research in Tennessee. In The Paleoindian and Early Archaic Southeast, edited by Anderson, D. G. and Sassaman, K.E. pp. 288–297. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Butzer, K. W. 1991 An Old World Perspective on Potential Mid- Wisconsinan Settlement of the Americas. In The First Americans: Search and Research, edited by Dillehay, T. D. and Meltzer, D. J., pp. 137–156. CRC Press, Boca Raton.Google Scholar
Carlson, R. L. 1983 The Far West. In Early Man in the New World, edited by R. Shutler Jr., pp. 73–96. Sage Publications, Beverly Hills.Google Scholar
Carlson, R. L. 1991 Clovis from the Perspective of the Ice-Free Corridor. In Clovis: Origins and Adaptations, edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Turnmire, K.L. pp. 81–90. Center for the Study of the First Americans, Corvallis, Oregon.Google Scholar
Clapperton, C. M., Hall, M., Mothes, P., Hole, M. J., Still, J. W., 1997 A Younger Dryas Icecap in the Equatorial Andes. Quaternary Research 47: 13–28.Google Scholar
Clark, D. W., and Clark, A. M. 1983 Paleo-Indians and Fluted Points: Subarctic Alternatives. Plains Anthropologist 28: 283–292.Google Scholar
Clausen, C. J., Cohen, A. D., Emiliani, C., Holman, J. A., 1979 Little Salt Spring, Florida: A Unique Underwater Site. Science 203: 609–614.Google Scholar
Cwynar, L. C, and Levesque, A. J. 1995 Chironomid Evidence for Late-Glacial Climate Reversals in Maine. Quaternary Research 43: 405–113.Google Scholar
Dikov, N. N. 1996 The Ushki Sites, Kamchatka Peninsula. In American Beginnings: The Prehistory and Palaeoecology of Beringia, edited by West, F. H., pp. 244–250. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Dillehay, T. D. 1997 Monte Verde, A Late Pleistocene Settlement in Chile, Volume 2, The Archaeological Context and Interpretation. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Donohue, J. A. 1998 The Chronology of the Jim Pitts Site and Implications for the Temporal Placement of the Goshen-Plainview Complex in the Northwestern Plains. Paper presented at the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Seattle.Google Scholar
Driskell, B. N. 1996 Stratified Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene Deposits at Dust Cave, Northwestern Alabama. In The Paleoindian and Early Archaic Southeast, edited by Anderson, D. G. and Sassaman, K.E. pp. 315–330. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Edwards, R. L., Beck, J. W., Burr, G.S., Donahue, D. J., A., J. M. 1993 A Large Drop in Atmospheric C/C and Reduced Melting in the Younger Dryas, Documented with 2,0Th Ages of Corals. Science 260: 962–968.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fairbanks, R. G., Charles, C. D., and Wright, J. D. 1992 Origin of Global Meltwater Pulses. In Radiocarbon After Four Decades, edited by R. E.Taylor, A. Long, and R. S. Kra, pp. 473–500. Springer-Verlag, New York.Google Scholar
Faught, M. K. 1996 Clovis Origins and Underwater Prehistoric Archaeology in Northwestern Florida. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona.Google Scholar
Fedje, D. W., White, J. M., Wilson, M. C., Nelson, D. E., 1995 Vermilion Lakes Site: Adaptations and Environments in the Canadian Rockies During the Latest Pleistocene and Early Holocene. American Antiquity 60: 81–108.Google Scholar
Ferring, C. R. 1995 The Late Quaternary Geology and Archaeology of the Aubrey Clovis Site, Texas: A Preliminary Report. In Ancient Peoples and Landscapes, edited by Johnson, E., pp. 273–281. Museum of Texas Tech University, Lubbock.Google Scholar
Fiedel, S. J. 1992 Prehistory of the Americas. 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Fiedel, S. J. 1996 Paleoindians in the Brazilian Amazon. Science 274: 1821–2.Google Scholar
Fiedel, S. J. 1998 Rapid Migrations by Arctic Hunting Peoples: Clovis and Thule. Paper presented at the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Seattle.Google Scholar
Flegenheimer, N. 1986/7 Excavaciones en el Sitio 3 de la Localidad Cerro La China (Prov. de Bs. As.). Relaciones de la Sociedad Argentina de Antropologia T. XVII-L7-28.Google Scholar
Flegenheimer, N., and Zarate, M. 1997 Considerations on Radiocarbon and Calibrated Dates from Cerro La China and Cerro El Sombrero, Argentina. Current Research in the Pleistocene 14: 27–28.Google Scholar
Frison, G. C. 1987 The Goshen Paleoindian Complex: New Data for Clovis and Folsom Research. Paper presented at the Twelfth International Congress of the International Union for Quaternary Research, Ottawa, Canada.Google Scholar
Frison, G. C. 1988 Paleoindian Subsistence and Settlement During Post- Clovis Times on the Northwestern Plains, the Adjacent Mountain Ranges, and Intermontane Basins. In America Before Columbus: Ice Age Origins, edited by Carlisle, R. C., pp. 83–106. Ethnology Monographs No. 12. University of Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Frison, G. C. 1993 The North American Paleoindian: A Wealth of New Data but Still Much to Learn. Plains Anthropologist 38, Memoir 27: 5–16.Google Scholar
Frison, G. C. 1996 The Mill Iron Site. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Frison, G. C, Haynes, C. V., and Larson, M. L. 1996 Discussion and Conclusions. In The Mill Iron Site, edited by Frison, G. C., pp. 205–216. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Gibbons, A. 1998 Calibrating the Mitochondrial Clock. Science 279: 28.Google Scholar
Goddard, I., and Campbell, L. 1994 The History and Classification of American Indian Languages: What are the Implications for the Peopling of the Americas? In Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling ofthe Americas, edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D.G. pp. 189–208. Center for the Study of the First Americans, Corvallis, Oregon.Google Scholar
Goebel, T, Powers, R., and Bigelow, N. 1991 The Nenana Complex of Alaska and Clovis Origins. In Clovis: Origins and Adaptations, edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Turnmire, K. L., pp. 49–80. Center for the Study of the First Americans, Corvallis, Oregon.Google Scholar
Goodyear, A. C. 1982 The Chronological Position of the Dalton Horizon in the Southeastern United States. American Antiquity 47: 382–395.Google Scholar
Goodyear, A. C. 1997 Clovis Utilization at Southeastern U.S. Quarries: The Big Pine Tree Site, Allendale, South Carolina. Paper presented at the 62nd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Nashville.Google Scholar
Goslar, T, Arnold, M., Bard, E., Kuc, T., Pazdur, M. F., 1995 High Concentration of Atmospheric C During the Younger Dryas Cold Episode. Nature 377: 414–417.Google Scholar
Greenberg, J. H. 1987 Language in the Americas. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California.Google Scholar
Greenberg, J. H., Turner, C. G. II, and Zegura, S. L. 1986 The Settlement of the Americas: A Comparison of the Linguistic, Dental, and Genetic Evidence. Current Anthropology 27: 477–97.Google Scholar
Gruhn, R. 1988 Linguistic Evidence in Support of the Coastal Route of Earliest Entry into the New World. Man 23: 77–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hajdas, I., Ivy-Ochs, S.D., Bonani, G., Lotter, A. F., 1995 Radiocarbon Age of the Laacher See Tephra: 11.230 ± 40 B.P. Radiocarbon 37: 149–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haynes, C. V. Jr. 1987 Clovis Origin Update. Kiva 52(2): 83–93.Google Scholar
Haynes, C. V. Jr. 1991a Geoarchaeological and Paleohydrological Evidence for a Clovis-Age Drought in North America and its Bearing on Extinction. Quaternary Research 35: 438–150.Google Scholar
Haynes, C. V. Jr. 1991b Clovis-Folsom-Midland-Plainview Geochronology, Climactic Change and Extinction. Paper presented at the 56th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Seattle.Google Scholar
Haynes, C. V. Jr. 1991c More on Meadowcroft Radiocarbon Chronology. The Review of Archaeology 12(1): 8–14.Google Scholar
Haynes, C. V. Jr. 1992 Contributions of Radiocarbon Dating to the Geochronology of the Peopling of the New World. In Radiocarbon After Four Decades, edited by Taylor, R. E., Long, A., and Kra, R. S., pp. 355–374. Springer-Verlag, New York.Google Scholar
Haynes, C. V. Jr. 1993 Clovis-Folsom Geochronology and Climatic Change. In From Kostenki to Clovis: Upper Paleolithic- Paleoindian Adaptations, edited by Softer, O. and Praslov, N.D. pp. 219–236. Plenum Press, New York.Google Scholar
Haynes, C. V. Jr. 1998 Geochronology of the Stratigraphic Manifestation of Paleoclimatic Events at Paleoindian Sites. Paper presented at the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Seattle.Google Scholar
Haynes, C. V., Jr., Donahue, D. J., Jull, A. J. T., and Zabel, T. H. 1984 Application of Accelerator Dating to Fluted Point Paleoindian Sites. Archaeology of Eastern North America 12: 184–191.Google Scholar
Heusser, C. J. 1989 Late Quaternary Vegetation and Climate of Southern Tierra del Fuego. Quaternary Research 31: 396–406.Google Scholar
Hoffecker, J. F, Powers, W. R., and Goebel, T. 1993 The Colonization of Beringia and the Peopling of the New World. Science 259: 46–53.Google Scholar
Hoganson, J. W., and Ashworth, A. C. 1992 Fossil Beetle Evidence for Climatic Change 18,000-10,000 Years B.R in South-Central Chile. Quaternary Research 37: 101–116.Google Scholar
Holliday, V. T. 1987 A Reexamination of Late-Pleistocene Boreal Forest Reconstructions for the Southern High Plains. Quaternary Research 28: 238–244.Google Scholar
Holliday, V. T. 1997 Paleoindian Geoarchaeology of the Southern High Plains. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Holmes, C. E. 1996 Broken Mammoth. In American Beginnings: The Prehistory and Palaeoecology of Beringia, edited by West, F. H., pp. 312–317. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Holmes, C. E., vanderHoek, R., and Dilley, T. E. 1996 Swan Point. In American Beginnings: The Prehistory and Palaeoecology of Beringia, edited by West, F. H., pp. 319–323. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Howell, N., Kubacka, I., and Mackey, D. A. 1996 How Rapidly Does the Human Mitochondrial Genome Evolve? American Journal of Human Genetics 59: 501–509.Google Scholar
Hughen, K. A., Overpeck, J. T., Lehman, S. J., Kashgarian,, M. 1998. Deglacial Changes in Ocean Circulation from an Extended Radiocarbon Calibration. Nature 391: 65–68.Google Scholar
Islebe, G. A., Hooghiemstra, H., and Berg, K. van der 1995 A Cooling Event during the Younger Dryas Chron in Costa Rica. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 117: 73–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, L. E. Jr., and Duk-Rodkin, A. 1996 Quaternary Geology of the Ice-Free Corridor: Glacial Controls on the Peopling of the New World. In Prehistoric Mongoloid Dispersals, edited by Akazawa, T. and J, E.. E. Szathmary, pp. 214–227. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Johnsen, S. J., Clausen, H. B., Dansgaard, W., Fuhrer, K., 1992 Irregular Glacial Interstadials Recorded in a New Greenland Ice Core. Nature 359: 311 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, M. F. 1997 Confirmation of McAvoy's Early Cactus Hill Sequence. Paper presented at the Middle Atlantic Archaeological Conference, Ocean City, Maryland.Google Scholar
Kitigawa, H., and Plicht, J. van der 1998 Atmospheric Radiocarbon Calibration to 45,000 Yr B.R: Late Glacial Fluctuations and Cosmogenic Isotope Production. Science 279: 1187–1190.Google Scholar
Kunz, M. L., and Reanier, R. E. 1994 Paleoindians in Beringia: Evidence from Arctic Alaska. Science 263: 660–662.Google Scholar
Levesque, A. J., Mayle, F. E., Walker, I. R., and Cwynar, L. C. 1993 A Previously Unrecognized Late-Glacial Cold Event in Eastern North America. Nature 361: 623–626.Google Scholar
Li, J., Lowenstein, T. K., Brown, C. B., Ku, T.-L., and Luo, S. 1996 A 100 KA Record of Water Tables and Paleoclimates from Salt Cores, Death Valley, California. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 123: 179–203.Google Scholar
Lin, J. C, Broecker, W. S., Hemming, S. R., Hajdas, I., 1998 A Reassessment of U-Th and ,4C Ages for Late-Glacial High-Frequency Hydrological Events at Searles Lake, California. Quaternary Research 49: 11–23.Google Scholar
Lotter, A.F. 1991 Absolute Dating of the Late-Glacial Period in Switzerland Using Annually Laminated Sediments. Quaternary Research 35: 321–330.Google Scholar
Lozhkin, A.V., Anderson, P.M., Eisner, W.R., Ravako, L.G., 1993 Late Quaternary Lacustrine Pollen Records from Southwestern Beringia. Quaternary Research 39: 314–324.Google Scholar
Lynch, T. F. 1990 Glacial-Age Man in South America?A Critical Review. American Antiquity 55: 12–36.Google Scholar
MacDonald, G. F. 1968 Debert, a Paleo-Indian Site in Central Nova Scotia. Anthropology Papers No. 16, National Museums of Canada, Ottawa.Google Scholar
Mandryk, C. A. S. 1996 Late-Glacial Vegetation and Environment on the Eastern Slope Foothills of the Rocky Mountains, Alberta, Canada. Journal of Paleolimnology 16: 37–57.Google Scholar
Mankinen, E. A., and Champion, D. E. 1993 Latest Pleistocene and Holocene Geomagnetic Paleointensity on Hawaii. Science 262: 412–416.Google Scholar
Markgraf, V. 1991 Younger Dryas in Southern South America? Boreas 20: 63–69.Google Scholar
Maschner, H. D. G. 1997 ‘American Beginnings’ and the Archaeological Record of Beringia: A Comment on Variability. Antiquity 71(271): 223–228.Google Scholar
Mayewski, P. A., Meeker, L. D., Whitlow, S., Twickler, M. S., 1993 The Atmosphere during the Younger Dryas. Science 261: 195–200.Google Scholar
Mayewski, P. A., Twickler, M. S., Whitlow, S. I., D., L. 1996 Climate Change During the Last Deglacation in Antarctica. Science 272: 1636–1637.Google Scholar
Mayle, F, Levesque, A. E., and Cwynar, L. C. 1993 Accelerator-Mass-Spectrometer Ages for the Younger Dryas Event in Atlantic Canada. Quaternary Research 39: 355–360.Google Scholar
McAvoy, J. M. 1997 A Culture Sequence from the Stratified Cactus Hill Site in Sussex County, Virginia. Paper presented at Middle Atlantic Archaeological Conference, Ocean City, Maryland. Dincauze, C. V Haynes, F. Mena, L Nunez, and D. J. Stanford 1997 On the Pleistocene Antiquity of Monte Verde, Southern Chile. American Antiquity 62: 659–663.Google Scholar
Merriwether, D.A., Rothhammer, F., and Ferrell, R. E. 1994 Genetic Variation in the New World: Ancient Teeth, Bone, and Tissue as Sources of DNA. Experientia 50: 592–601.Google Scholar
Mock, C. J., and Bartlein, P. J. 1995 Spatial Variability of Late-Quatemary Paleoclimates in the Western United States. Quaternary Research 44: 425–133.Google Scholar
Morrow, J., and Morrow, T. 1997 Geographic Patterning in Fluted Point Morphology in the New World. Paper presented at the 62nd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Nashville.Google Scholar
Nami, H. G. 1994 Resena Sobre los Avances de la Arqueologfa Finipleistocenica del Extremo Sur de Sudamerica. Revista Chungara 26(2): 145–163.Google Scholar
Nami, H. G. 1996 New Assessments of Early Human Occupations in the Southern Cone. In Prehistoric Mongoloid Dispersals, edited by Akazawa, T. and J, E.. E. Szathmary, pp. 256–269. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Nami, H. G. 1997 Archaeology and Landscapes during the Pleistocene- Holocene Transition in the Southern Tip of South America. Paper presented at the 62nd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Nashville.Google Scholar
Nichols, J. 1990 Linguistic Diversity and the First Settlement of the New World. Language 66: 475–521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oldfield, F., and Schoenwetter, J. 1975 Discussion of the Pollen-Analytical Evidence. In Late Pleistocene Environments of the Southern High Plains, edited by Wendorf, F., and J. J. Hester, pp. 149–177. Publication No. 9. Fort Burgwin Research Center. Museum of New Mexico Press, Ranchos de Taos. Google Scholar
Pearson, G. A. 1997a Non-Mongoloid Pleistocene Expansions: Old and New Ideas on the Origins of the First Americans. Paper presented at the 24th Annual Meeting of Alaska Anthropological Association, White Horse, Yukon.Google Scholar
Pearson, G. A. 1997b Paleoindians in the Alaskan Interior: Results of the 1996 Moose Creek Expedition. Paper presented at the 62nd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Nashville.Google Scholar
Pearson, G. A. 1998 Pan-American Paleoindian Dispersals as Seen Through the Lithic Reduction Strategies and Tool Manufacturing Techniques at the Guardiria Site, Turrialba Valley, Costa Rica. Paper presented at the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Seattle.Google Scholar
Politis, G. 1997 The Peopling of the Americas Viewed from the Southern Cone. Paper presented at the 62nd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Nashville.Google Scholar
Quade, J., Forester, R. M., Pratt, W. L., and Carter, C. 1998 Black Mats, Spring-Fed Streams, and Late Glacial Age Recharge in the Southern Great Basin. Quaternary Research 49: 129–148.Google Scholar
Ray, J. H., Lopinot, N. H., Hajic, E. R., and Mandel, R. D. 1998 The Big Eddy Site: A Multicomponent Paleoindian Site on the Ozark Border, Southwest Missouri. Plains Anthropologist 43: 73–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reanier, R. E. 1995 The Antiquity of Paleoindian Materials in Northern Alaska. Arctic Anthropology 32(1): 31–50.Google Scholar
Roberts, R., Bird, M., Olley, J., Galbraith, R., Lawson, E., 1998 Optical and Radiocarbon Dating at Jinmium Rockshelter in Northern Australia. Nature 393: 358–360.Google Scholar
Roosevelt, A. C, Lima Da, M.. Costa, , Machado, C. Lopes, 1996 Paleoindian Cave Dwellers in the Amazon: The Peopling of the Americas. Science 272: 373–384.Google Scholar
Schulz, H., Rad, U. von, and Erlenkeuser, H. 1998 Correlation Between Arabian Sea and Greenland Climate Oscillations of the Past 110,000 Years. Nature 393: 54–57.Google Scholar
Shane, L. C. K. 1994 Intensity and Rate of Vegetation and Climatic Change in the Ohio Region Between 14,000 and 9,000 14C YB.R . In The First Discovery of America, Archaeological Evidence of the Early Inhabitants of the Ohio Area, edited by Dancey, W. S., pp. 7–22. Ohio Archaeological Council, Inc., Columbus.Google Scholar
Sherratt, A. 1997 Climatic Cycles and Behavioral Revolutions: The Emergence of Modern Humans and the Beginning of Farming. Antiquity 71: 271–287.Google Scholar
Shields, G. E, Schmiechen, A. M., Frazier, B. L., Redd, A., 1993 MtDNA Sequences Suggest a Recent Evolutionary Divergence for Beringian and Northern North American Populations. American Journal of Human Genetics 53: 549–562.Google Scholar
Shott, M. J. 1992 Radiocarbon Dating as a Probabilistic Technique: The Childers Site and Late Woodland Occupation in the Ohio Valley. American Antiquity 57: 202–230 Google Scholar
Sowers, T., and Bender, M. 1995 Climate Records Covering the Last Deglaciation. Science 269: 210–214.Google Scholar
Stafford, T. W., Jr. 1994 Accelerator C-14 Dating of Human Fossil Skeletons: Assessing Accuracy and Results on New World Specimens. In Method and Theory for Investigating the Peopling of the Americas, ed. Bonnichsen, R. and Steele, D. G., pp. 45–56. Center for the Study of the First Americans, Corvallis, Oregon Google Scholar
Stone, A. C, and Stoneking, M. 1998 MtDNA Analysis of a Prehistoric Oneota Population: Implications for the Peopling of the New World. American Journal of Human Genetics 62: 1153–1170.Google Scholar
Stuckenrath, R. Jr. 1966 The Debert Archaeological Project, Nova Scotia: Radiocarbon Dating. Quaternaria 8: 75–80.Google Scholar
Stuiver, M., Grootes, P. M., and Braziunas, T. F. 1995 The GISP2 8I80 Climate Record of the Past 16,500 Years and the Role of the Sun, Ocean, and Volcanoes. Quaternary Research 44: 341–354.Google Scholar
Stuiver, M., and Reimer, P. J. 1993 Extended l4C Data Base and Revised Calib 3.0 l4C Age Calibration Program. Radiocarbon 35: 215–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tankersley, K. B. 1994 Was Clovis a Colonizing Population in Eastern North America? In The First Discovery of America, Archaeological Evidence of the Early Inhabitants of the Ohio Area, edited by Dancey, W. S., pp. 95–116. Ohio Archaeological Council, Inc., Columbus.Google Scholar
Taylor, K.C., Mayewski, P., Alley, R.B., Brook, E.J., Gow, A.J., Grootes, P.M., Meese, D.A., Saltzman, E.S., Severinghaus, J.P., Twickler, M. S., White, J.W.C., Whitlow, S., and Zielinski, G.A. 1997 The Holocene-Younger Dryas Transition Recorded at Summit, Greenland. Science 278 (5339) 825–827.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. E. 1992 Radiocarbon Dating of Bone: To Collagen and Beyond. In Radiocarbon After Four Decades, edited by Taylor, R. E., Long, A., and R. S. Kra, pp. 375-102. Springer- Verlag, New York.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. E., Haynes, C. V. Jr., and Stuiver, M. 1996 Clovis and Folsom Age Estimates: Stratigraphic Context and Radiocarbon Calibration. Antiquity 70(269): 515–525.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, L. G., Mosley-Thompson, E., Davis, M. E., 1995 Late Glacial Stage and Holocene Tropical Ice Core Records from Huascaran, Peru. Science 269: 46–50.Google Scholar
Torroni, A., Neel, J. V., Barrantes, R., Schurr, T. G., and Wallace, D. C. 1994 Mitochondrial DNA “Clock” for the Amerinds and its Implications for Timing Their Entry into North America. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91: 1158–1162.Google Scholar
Turner, C. G. II 1986 Dentochronological Separation Estimates for Pacific Rim Populations. Science 232: 1140–1142.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tuross, N., and Dillehay, T. D. 1995 The Mechanism of Organic Preservation at Monte Verde, Chile, and One Use of Biomolecules in Archaeological Interpretation. Journal of Field Archaeology 22: 97–110.Google Scholar
Vogel, J. C, Fuls, A., Visser, E., and Becker, B. 1993 Pretoria Calibration Curve for Short-Lived Samples, 1930-3350 B.C. Radiocarbon 35: 73–86.Google Scholar
Waters, M. R. 1985 Early Man in the New World: An Evaluation of the Radiocarbon-Dated Pre-Clovis Sites in the Americas. In Environments and Extinctions: Man in Late Glacial North America, ed. Mead, J. I. and Meltzer, D. J., pp. 125–144. Center for the Study of Early Man, Orono, Maine.Google Scholar
Weiss, Kenneth M. 1994 American Origins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91: 833–835.Google Scholar
Wendorf, E, and Hester, J. J. (editors) 1975 Late Pleistocene Environments of the Southern High Plains. Publication No. 9. Fort Burgwin Research Center, Ranchos de Taos, New Mexico.Google Scholar
West, F. H. (ed.) 1996 American Beginnings: The Prehistory and Palaeoecology of Beringia. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Willig, J. A. 1991 Clovis Technology and Adaptation in Far Western North America: Regional Pattern and Environmental Context. In Clovis: Origins and Adaptations, edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Turnmire, K. L., pp. 91–119. Center for the Study of the First Americans, Corvallis, Oregon.Google Scholar
Willig, J. A., and Aikens, C. M. 1988 The Clovis-Archaic Interface in Far Western North America. In Early Human Occupation in Far Western North America: The Clovis-Archaic Interface, ed. Willig, J. A., Aikens, C. M., and Fagan, J. L., pp. 1—40. Anthropological Papers No. 21. Nevada State Museum, Carson City.Google Scholar
Wilmsen, E. N., and Roberts, F. H. H. Jr. 1984 Lindenmeier, 1934-1974: Concluding Report on Investigations. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology 24. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D. C. Google Scholar
Wright, H. E. Jr. 1991 Environmental Conditions for Paleoindian Migration. In The First Americans: Search and Research, edited by Dillehay, T. D. and Meltzer, D.J. pp. 113–136. CRC Press, Boca Raton.Google Scholar