Introduction

How we look at addiction, treatment, and recovery has changed over time. Globally, a wide range of interventions and treatment options are available to deal with substance use problems. From a historical and cross-cultural perspective, various approaches to addiction and its treatment can be distinguished, some of which have endured (van den Brink, 2005; West, 2006). Moral theories of addiction point to the lack of willpower of individuals, suggesting harsh (treatment) methods for behaviour change (for example, boot camps, corporal punishments, and even the death penalty in some countries). Pharmacological theories situate the problem of addiction in the substance, resulting in the Prohibition Act (1920– 33) and a War on Drugs in the United States (1980– …) and other countries. The disease model of addiction, supported by Alcoholics Anonymous and other 12-step facilitated programmes (for example, the Minnesota Model), starts from the assumption that some individuals have an innate deficit that is best managed by lifelong abstinence (van den Brink, 2005). Some psychological theories view addiction as a symptom of an underlying personality disorder, requiring treatment of its root causes (for example, long-term treatment in therapeutic communities). At the same time, behaviourist approaches primarily see substance use as learned (coping) behaviour that can be reversed by, for example, cue exposure. In recent decades, more comprehensive and integrative theories have been developed including the bio-psycho-social model of addiction (treatment) and the prevailing view of addiction as a chronic, relapsing brain disorder (Heilig et al, 2021).